Anthony Sarkees
Introduction
The benefits of extracurricular involvement on the development and adjustment of
adolescents are well-documented in the literature. Benefits include an improvement in
academic performance (Eccles and Barber, 1999), development of social skills (Dworkin,
Larson, & Hansen, 2003) and increased social interest (Gilman, 2001). Literature has
shown that participation in academic and extracurricular activities has the effect of
boosting self-esteem and enhancing one’s sense of collective self-esteem (Bettencourt,
Charlton, Eubanks, Kernahan, & Fuller, 1999). High-ingroup status can buffer one’s selfesteem against the effects of racism (Platow, Byrne, & Ryan, 2006). The study at hand
wishes to measure extracurricular involvement, collective self-esteem, personal selfesteem, and extent of perceived discrimination in a single sample in an attempt to
understand what interactions and dynamics are at play.
Eccles and Barber (1999) showed that extracurricular involvement facilitated an
effective learning environment that was conducive to success. Students that participated
in structured leisure activities all showed a general improvement in academic
performance (in the form of higher grade point averages than those of their peers), less
displays of problem behavior in the classroom, and higher likelihood of full-time college
enrollment at the age of 21. These improvements in academic performance do not seem
to be limited to students already performing at a high level of achievement or to students
of a higher socioeconomic status (Coladarci & Cobb, 1996). Also, these effects are not
limited to academic clubs or teams (e.g. debate, “Brain Brawl”) and are evident across a
wide variety of types of extracurricular activities, ranging from athletics to theater
(Darling, Caldwell, & Smith, 2005).
The benefits of extracurricular participation promote achievement, but extend
beyond the report card, as well. Darling, Caldwell, and Smith (2005) showed that highlystructured leisure activities such as athletics, marching band, and theater encourage
students to “manage their own experiences, exert control over their environments, and to
act autonomously,” (p. 51). The effects of these experiences were less marijuana use, less
alcohol use, and more positive attitudes toward school. Students recounted their personal
growth in multiple areas due to participation in extracurricular involvement, including
developing peer relationships, development of initiative, identity work, teamwork, and
social skills (Dworkin et al., 2003). Also, students who participate in even 1 or 2
extracurricular activities show marked increases in life satisfaction and social interest
(Gilman, 2001).
While these benefits are clearly advantageous, in some cases, participation in
extracurricular activities has negative effects. Involvement in high school sports is
correlated with an earlier date of first alcohol intoxication, and with elevated rates of
alcohol consumption (Eccles & Barber, 1999). Some literature suggests that participation
in high school league sports is correlated with higher alcohol use and moderate marijuana
use in relation to their peers who are not in sports (Darling, Caldwall, and Smith, 2005).
Despite these consequences of participation, the social skills, academic improvement, and
effects on a student’s individual self-esteem that accompany extracurricular participation
make these activities a valuable asset to the school environment.
The current study is concerned with the concept of collective self-esteem, which
literature has demonstrated to have practical effects on an individual’s self-esteem and
coping strategies. Collective self-esteem is defined as the extent to which individuals
evaluate their social groups positively (Bettencourt, 1999). Collective self-esteem is a
collection of attitudes towards one’s group, which are formed through positive learning
experiences with that group (Olson & Fazio, 2001).