A Brief History of Japan
Japan is an island. That fact has been important to its history.
China first made an official visit to Japan in the 200s. The visitors dubbed Japan the Land
of Wa, or harmony; according to the written records, at this time Japan was ruled by a
shamaness named Himiko.
Ancient Japan had its own mythology, oral histories which were collected into an official
history of the land called the Kojiki in the year 712. The Kojiki tells us that the rulers of
Japan are descended from the Sun Goddess Amaterasu Omikami through her grandson
Jimmu, the first emperor of Japan. It is likely that the Kojiki was created for the purpose
of establishing the dominant clan as the legitimate and god-given rulers of Japan. Other
clans, or uji, gradually lost power and become subordinate to this ruling clan. The time of
Jimmu and his descendants is called the Yamato Period.
Keyhole tombs and Haniwa (clay burial figures) date from this period.
The first historically documented period of Japanese history is the Nara period (712-793).
It dates from the transfer of the capital to Nara. The new capital was based on the ideal
Chinese city of Chang-An. The creation of the capital at Nara reflected a growing desire
for centralized government and the stability it could bring. Steps had already been taken
toward this end through the Taika Reforms of the mid 600s, which diminished the power
of the uji (clans), and developed a central administration. The reforms show Continental
influences such as Buddhism, popularized by Prince Shotoku in the late 500s. Todaiji
was one of the first great temples in Nara. It is the largest totally wooden structure in the
world.
Todaiji
The transfer of the Japanese capital from Nara west to Kyoto by Emperor Kammu
marked the end of the Nara Period and the beginning of the Heian Period (794-1186).
The Heian Period was a golden age dominated by the customs and tastes of the royal
court in Kyoto. Court society developed definite styles of dress, music, and literature.
Literature, in particular, flowered, and women authors were active. Murasaki Shikibu, a
woman of the court, wrote the epic Tale of Genji, commonly acknowledged as the
world’s first novel. Sei Shonagon, another court lady and Murasaki’s rival, wrote the
Pillow Book, a collection of essays and observations on life and manners. These women
wrote in hiragana, a slender, flowing script developed from simplified Chinese characters
that later became the Japanese alphabet. Such writing was called onna-de, “woman’s
hand.” Overall, the Heian period is associated with a refined, feminine aesthetic called
Taoyame-buri (literally, “like a gentle woman”), whereas the Nara Period is characterized
by more a more manly and vigorous aesthetic, “masura-o buri.”
Heian Woman’s Costume
During the Heian Period there was much commerce between Japan and the
Continent. The Japanese monks Saicho and Kukai traveled to China to learn more about
Buddhism, and when they returned they founded the Tendai and Shingon sects of
Buddhism. The Tendai sect was based at Enryaku Temple on Mt. Hiei, which rises above
Kyoto to the east. Tendai disciples believed in a life of service and the importance of the
Lotus Sutra. The Shingon sect was based at Mt. Koya, a temple south of the capital.
Shingon believers accepted Dainichi as the main incarnation of Buddha; this religion
includes secret mantras (chants) and hand gestures.
Pure Land Buddhism was also born in Heian times. It was popularized by the
monk Genshin. Pure Landers believed in Tariki (salvation through another), vs. Jiriki
(salvation through personal effort). They also emphasized chanting the nenbutsu, or
evoking the name of Amida Buddha. The Byodoin, a temple near Kyoto devoted to
Amida Buddha, was built at this time.
Byodoin
The Taira, or Fujiwara, clan dominated the court during the Heian Period, ruling behind
the scenes through an extensive system of connections through marriage to the imperial
family. The Fujiwara also made use of regencies. When a regent conducted matters of
state on behalf of a child emperor that regent was called sessho. A kampaku was a regent
for an adult emperor. This is an example of a situation occurring frequently throughout
Japanese history in which the emperor held only nominal power, while the actual power
resided elsewhere. The greatest of the Fujiwara family was Fujiwara no Michinaga (9661028), on whom Murasaki Shikibu based her dashing hero and lover, Genji.
Modern actors dressed as Genji and his lover, Murasaki
The Heian Period came to an end as court culture fell into a decline. The Heian
aristocrats compromised their position by depending on warrior clans to quell rebellion
and unrest in the provinces. The strength of provincial lords who owned shoen (manors)
increased, and the central government weakened. Supported by country bushi (warriors),
Minamoto Yoriyoshi and Yoriie consolidated the strength of the powerful Minamoto clan
in the provinces. Although the Minamoto (Genji) clan ostensibly served the Taira
(Fujiwara) clan, they had become strong enough to seize power themselves. Kiyomori,
one of the last strong Taira (Fujiwara) leaders, had many of the Minamoto clan executed,
but the family rallied around Minamoto Yoritomo in the East. Yoritomo’s younger
brother Yoshitsune achieved a series of victories over the Taira clan, driving them from
the capital and forcing them to flee ever south and west. The Fujiwara were finally
defeated in the battle of Dan no Ura in 1185, where the seven year old emperor Antoku
perished when his grandmother jumped with him into the waves. This battle marked the
end of the Heian Period and the beginning of the Kamakura Period (1186-1336).
The Battle of Dan no Ura
Thus began the age of the shogun and the shogunate, or bakufu. Although the emperors
retained their ceremonial title, during this period the de-facto ruler of Japan was the
shogun, or general, who ruled from the eastern city of Kamakura. The culture of
aristocrats withered away and a culture of warriors was born. In the late 1100s and early
1200s Zen Buddhism was brought over from China by the monks Eisai and Enni. Zen
emphasized satori, or sudden enlightenment, instead of the reciting of sutras. Japan’s
warrior class accepted Zen and refined its practice to a high art.
Practicing Za-zen
The Muramachi Period began in 1392 and continued until 1573. This period saw great
unrest; the shogunate became less powerful and there was much warring in the provinces.
At the same time there was steady economic development and Japan saw a rise of the
merchant class. Eventually three figures arose from the chaos to reunify Japan under one
government. Those men were Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa
Ieyasu.
Oda Nobunaga
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Tokugawa Ieyasu
The process of reunification began in 1598, when the daimyo (provincial lord) Oda
Nobunaga managed to take Kyoto. His retainer and successor was Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a
man of military genius and political vision. Toyotomi instituted new laws and reforms; he
surveyed the land, disarmed villagers of their weapons to keep law and order, and
attempted to expand the Japanese empire through an unsuccessful attack of Korea. He
was also an important patron of the arts. It was partly through his sponsorship that the tea
ceremony, created by Sen no Rikyu in the Azuchi Momoyama Period, was popularized
and refined. Toyotomi had a tea room made for himself covered in gold leaf.
A Reconstruction of Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s Tea Room
During this time noh (traditional Japanese drama) also flourished under the patronage of
Toyotomi and the warrior class. He ruled as kampaku (regent), as had Oda. On his death
the various lords vied for power, but Tokugawa established his dominance in a great
battle at Sekigahara in 1600 and became shogun.
Noh mask
Tokugawa’s unification of Japan marked the beginning of the period known as the
Tokugawa Period or the Edo Period. Tokugawa moved the capital of Japan to Edo, a city
that had originally been a small fishing village in eastern Honshu. He established a
centralized feudal state in which the shogun controlled the daimyo (provincial lords) with
an iron hand. Frustrated with the activities of Christian missionaries, Tokugawa closed
Japan to the outside world, permitting no foreigners to set foot in the country excepting
through the port of Nagasaki, where Dutch ships would come to trade. During this period
the merchant class developed further, gaining both financial power and cultural
dominance. Literature of this period reflected the life of merchants in major towns such
as Edo and Osaka. The pleasure quarters, where wealthy men could be entertained by
geisha of various ranks, became a popular subject of books and prints.
A Woman of the Pleasure Quarters
Under the Tokugawa clan’s rule Japan experienced two hundred years of stability
and isolation from the rest of the world. This state continued until the arrival of
Commodore Perry’s “Black Ships” from America in 1853. Through persuasion and the
show of force, Perry succeeded in opening Japan to trade, which in turn resulted in a
deluge of foreign culture and customs.