Gladiatorial Games
Like chariot racing, contests of gladiators probably originated as funeral games; these contests were much
less ancient than races, however. The first recorded gladiatorial combat in Rome occurred when three
pairs of gladiators fought to the death during the funeral of Junius Brutus in 264 BCE, though others may
have been held earlier. Gladiatorial games (called munera since they were originally “duties” paid to dead
ancestors) gradually lost their exclusive connection with the funerals of individuals and became an
important part of the public spectacles staged by politicians and emperors (click here for some modern
assessments of the cultural meaning of the arena). The popularity of gladiatorial games is indicated by the
large number of wall paintings and mosaics depicting gladiators; for example, this very large mosaic
illustrating many different aspects of the games covered an entire floor of a Roman villa in Nennig,
Germany. Many household items were decorated with gladiatorial motifs, such as this lamp and this flask.
ARENA:
Gladiatorial contests, like chariot races, were originally held in large open spaces with temporary seating;
there is evidence that some munera were held in the Roman Forum, for example. As the games became
more frequent and popular, there was need for a larger and more permanent structure. Although the Circus
Maximus was often pressed into service because of its huge seating capacity, the Romans eventually
designed a building specifically for this type of spectacle (called an amphitheatrum because the seating
extended all the way around the oval or elliptical performance area, which was covered with sand,
harena). Early amphitheaters, both in Rome and
elsewhere, were built of wood, but stone amphitheaters
proved to be much more durable; the oldest stone
amphitheater, built in Pompeii in the first century CE and
seating approximately 20,000, is still well preserved (see
also this view through an archway on the upper level, a
section of stone seats with staircase, and the exterior walls
with stairway). Like Roman theaters, amphitheaters were
freestanding; because they did not require natural hills, as
Greek theaters did, they could be built anywhere. A
remarkable painting from a house in Pompeii depicts the
amphitheater. In the tree-shaded area in front, vendors
have set up temporary shops to sell food and drinks; the
exercise-ground to the right was equipped with a large
latrine so spectators could relieve themselves. This fresco
depicts a specific event that took place in 59 CE, when a fight erupted between the Pompeians and the
neighboring Nucerians (much like modern soccer brawls); in punishment for the riot, Nero imposed a tenyear ban on gladiatorial fights in the amphitheater.
Colosseum: The reconstruction drawing at the top of this page depicts the grandest of all Roman
amphitheaters, known in antiquity as the Flavian Amphitheater because it was built by the emperors of the
gens Flavia, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, and later called the Colosseum, either because of its size of
because of the colossal statue of Nero which stood in the vicinity. The inaugural games were held in 80
CE, though construction continued for some time after that. The exterior walls were four stories high, and
the first three stories were adorned with half-columns illustrating the three classic architectural styles
(Doric, Ionic, Corinthian). Only a small part of the full structure survives (not because it collapsed, though
it was damaged by several earthquakes, but because later Italians used the building as a quarry for
centuries, stealing the stones to build St. Peter's and many palaces). What remains of the Colosseum today
gives no idea of this amphitheater’s lavish decorations, such as colorfully painted statues, decorative
marble, and painted stucco. This model demonstrates the intact structure, and this cutaway section shows
details of the construction, as does this labeled drawing. Looking down at the
interior of the Colosseum from the top story gives some sense of its size;
estimates of seating capacity vary from 40-60,000, with 50,000 most likely.
Because the floor of the Colosseum has not survived, we can see the maze of
underground structures, corridors, ramps, animal pens (this image from the
amphitheater in Pozzuoli shows what the pens in the Colosseum were like),
and rooms for prisoners. This view of amphitheater at Capu a illustrates what
the floor of the Colosseum would have looked like without the
wooden coverings and layer of sand; we can clearly see the rims
which held the wooden trapdoors through which animals and men
would “magically” appear and which could be used to produce
other special effects. When the trapdoors were closed, this
subterranean area must have been very dark and frightening,
echoing with the roaring of caged animals and the cries of
prisoners awaiting execution in the arena (see, for example, this
image from Pozzuoli). The top story of the Colosseum was equipped with posts to which were attached a
huge awning that would shield the spectators from the hot sun; this image shows the post holders for this
awning. Seating in the amphitheater was arranged by rank, with a special box for the emperor and his
family and ring-side seats for senators. Those who had the least political clout, foreigners and women,
relegated to the topmost rows.
GLADIATORS:
Status: Gladiators (named after the Roman sword called the gladius) were mostly unfree individuals
(condemned criminals, prisoners of war, slaves). Some gladiators were volunteers (mostly freedmen or
very low classes of freeborn men) who chose to take on the status of a slave for the monetary rewards or
the fame and excitement. Anyone who became a gladiator was automatically infamis, beneath the law and
by definition not a respectable citizen. A small number of upper-class men did compete in the arena
(though this was explicitly prohibited by law), but they did not live with the other gladiators and
constituted a special, esoteric form of entertainment (as did the extremely rare women who competed in
the arena; see some Latin passages referring to female gladiators). All gladiators swore a solemn oath
(sacramentum gladiatorium), similar to that sworn by the legionary but much more dire: “I will endure to
be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword”. Trained gladiators had the possibility
of surviving and even thriving. Some gladiators did not fight more than two or three times a year, and the
best of them became popular heroes (appearing often on graffiti, for example: “Celadus the Thraex is the
heart-throb of the girls”). Skilled fighters might win a good deal of money and the wooden sword (rudis)
that symbolized their freedom. Freed gladiators could continue to fight for money, but they often became
trainers in the gladiatorial schools or free-lance bodyguards for the wealthy.
Types of Gladiators: There were many categories of gladiators, who were distinguished by the kind of
armor they wore, the weapons they used, and their style of fighting. Most gladiators stayed in one
category, and matches usually involved two different categories of gladiator. The following examples will
illustrate some of the different types of gladiators which modern scholars have identified:
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Eques (“horseman”): The Eques (plural, equites) usually fought against another gladiator of the
same type. They probably began their matches on horseback, but they ended in hand-to-hand
combat. These were the only gladiators who wore regular tunics rather than any type of body
armor (see modern mannequin), though they wore bronze helmets with two feathers and padded
shin-protectors; they carried round shields and often fought with long swords.
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Hoplomachus (“heavy-weapons fighter”): The Hoplomachus, named after the Greek Hoplite
warrior, fought with a long spear as well as a short sword or dagger; he wore a visored helmet with
crest and long greaves over both legs to protect them since he carried only a small shield, usually
round (see original and replica). In this terracotta relief, a Hoplomachus battles a Thraex, who is
attempting to reach over his shield and stab him. A late Republican funeral monument depicts a
Thraex fighting against a kneeling Hoplomachus, though both gladiators wear early types of
crested helmets without visors.
Murmillo (“fish”): The Murmillo, named for a Greek saltwater fish, wore a large visored helmet
with a high crest; these helmets became increasingly enhanced with relief decorations, as for
example the head of Hercules (see also replica), military trophies (see front and side of replica),
and the Gorgon, Mars Ultor, and decorative vessels (see replica). The Murmillo was protected by a
large, slightly curved, rectangular shield (see replica), so he needed only one short shin-guard
(ocrea) to protect his left leg (side view; replica). He fought with a short stabbing sword (gladius).
The wreaths on a tombstone from Ephesus indicate that this Murmillo won many combats. In
another relief from Ephesus, the Murmillo Asteropaios, on the left, is attempting to stab the Thraex
Drakon; both gladiators have lost their shields and are fighting in a “clinch.”
Provocator (“attacker”): The Provocator was the most heavily armed gladiator; he was the only
gladiator who wore a pectoral covering the vulnerable upper chest. He also wore a padded armprotector and one greave on his left leg; he carried a large rectangular shield and stabbing sword.
His large, distinctive visored helmet had no crest and extended over his shoulders (see also
replica). The extent of his armor made the Provocator slower and less agile than other gladiators,
which may explain why he tended to be paired with another gladiator of the same type in combat.
Retiarius (“netman”): The Retiarius was the quickest and most mobile of gladiators; as the only
type of gladiator who wore no helmet, he had much more range of vision than his opponents.
However, since he wore practically no defensive armor, he was also more vulnerable to serious
wounds; his only body protection was a padded arm-protector (manica) on his left arm often
topped with a high metal shoulder protector (galerus), also shown in this replica. His weapons
were a large net with which he attempted to entangle his opponent, a long trident, and a small
dagger (see also replica). The Retiarius in this relief advances on a Secutor who has lost his shield
(which is held by the referee). However, looking at the Retiarius in this mosaic, one has to ask,
“Why is this man smiling?” because the Secutor appears about to stab him, while the kneeling
position of this Retiarius indicates that he has surrendered to the Secutor who stands menacingly
above him.
Secutor (“pursuer”): The Secutor was typically paired with a Retiarius. His egg-shaped helmet
with round eye-holes had no crest or reliefs to snag on the net of the Retiarius but also gave him
little range of vision. He wore a short shin protector (ocrea) on one leg and an arm protector; he
carried a large rectangular shield and stabbing sword. The wreaths on this tombstone of a Secutor
indicate his many victories, while an exultant Secutor named Improbus prepares to dispatch a
fallen Retiarius in this relief.
Thraex (“Thracian”): The Thraex gladiator was loosely based on the Thracians, former enemies
of Rome. His most distinctive feature was his weapon, a short sword (sica) whose blade was either
curved or kinked. His visored helmet with wide brim resembled that of a Murmillo except that it
was topped with the head of a griffin (see replica). Because the Thraex carried a short rectangular
shield, he wore an arm-protector and long shin protectors (ocreae) on both legs (these are
decorated with theatrical masks and an eagle vs. snake motif; see also replica). The victorious
gladiator in this mosaic is a Thraex, while this Thraex holds up an index finger to signal surrender.
A tombstone from Antalya and one from Akhisar in Turkey provide good illustrations of this type
of gladiator,
In addition, the Bestiarius (“animal-fighter”) was a special type of gladiator trained to handle and fight
all sorts of animals. The bestiarii were the lowest ranking gladiators; they did not become as popular or
individually well known as other types of gladiators. Although this relief depicts bestiarii wearing armor,
most depictions show them without armor, equipped with whips or spears, wearing cloth or leather
garments and leggings.
Training: The manager of a gladiatorial troupe was called a lanista; he provided lengthy and demanding
training in schools (ludi) especially designed for this purpose and usually located near the great
amphitheaters. Pompeii, for example, had both a small training area surrounded by gladiatorial barracks
near the theater, while there was a large exercise-ground (palaestra) right next to the amphitheater. During
the imperial period all the gladiatorial schools in Rome were under the direct control of the emperor. The
largest of these schools, the Ludus Magnus, was located next to the Colosseum; it included a practice
amphitheater whose partially excavated ruins can be seen today.
A DAY AT THE
ARENA:
Gladiatorial games began
with an elaborate procession
that included the
combatants and was led by
the sponsor of the games,
the editor; in Rome during
the imperial period, this
usually was the emperor,
and in the provinces it was a
high-ranking magistrate.
The parade and subsequent
events were often
accompanied by music; the
mosaic at right depicts a
water organ and the curved
horn (cornu). The morning's
events might begin with
mock fights such as this contest. These would be followed by animal displays, sometimes featuring trained
animals that performed tricks, but more often staged as hunts (venationes) in which increasingly exotic
animals were pitted against each other or hunted and killed by bestiarii (click here for more information
about venationes).
The lunch break was devoted to executions of criminals who had committed particularly heinous crimes—
murder, arson, sacrilege (the Christians, for example, were considered to be guilty of sacrilege and
treason, because they refused to participate in rites of the state religion or to acknowledge the divinity of
the emperor). The public nature of the execution made it degrading as well as painful and was intended to
serve as a deterrent to others. One form of execution in the arena was damnatio ad bestias, in which the
condemned were cast into the arena with violent animals or were made to participate in “dramatic”
reenactments of mythological tales in which the “stars” really died (as for example the myth of Dirce,
killed by being tied to a bull). Criminals could also be forced to fight in the arena with no previous
training; in such bouts death was a foregone conclusion, since the “victor” had to face further opponents
until he died (such combatants were not, of course, professional gladiators). In extraordinary
circumstances, criminals might be forced to stage an elaborate naval battle (naumachia). Although these
were usually fought on lakes, some scholars think they might also have been staged in the Colosseum, as
shown in this modern drawing.
In the afternoon came the high point of the games—individual gladiatorial combats. These were usually
matches between gladiators with different types of armor and fighting styles, supervised by a referee
carrying a long staff (summa rudis). Although it is popularly believed that these bouts began with the
gladiators saying “Those who are about to die salute you,” the only evidence for this phrase is only found
in the description of a naumachia staged by Claudius using condemned criminals, where the men
supposedly said “Ave, imperator; morituri te salutant” (Suetonius, Claudius 21.6). This was certainly not
a typical gladiatorial combat and cannot be used as evidence for customary practice. There were, however,
many rituals in the arena. When a gladiator had been wounded and wished to concede defeat, he would
hold up an index finger, as clearly depicted on the Colchester vase and on the mosaic below. At this point
the crowd would indicate with gestures whether they wished the defeated gladiator to be killed or spared.
The popular belief is that “thumbs down” meant kill and “thumbs up” meant spare. In any case, the
sponsor of the games decided whether or not to give the defeated gladiator a reprieve (missio). If the
gladiator was to be killed, he was expected to accept the final blow in a ritualized fashion, without crying
out or flinching. Some scholars believe there was also a ritual for removing the bodies of dead gladiators,
with a man Hades hitting the body with a hammer to make sure he was really dead and then a slave
dragging the body with a hook through a gate.