CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the summary of the study, conclusion and recommendations
drawn from the study. The recommendations for future research are also presented.
5.1
Summary and Main Findings
The research problem was about factors that influence the career choices and
aspirations of female students in the universities. In a cross sectional study of female
students from University of Cape Coast and University of Education, Winneba the
students expressed their views and observations about the factors that influence the career
choices and aspirations of women and how they impacted on them.
The instrument for data collection was an interview guide structured to find out
how gender influence, socio-economic status, occupational and educational levels of
parents, the influence of achievement of some Ghanaian females, or personal
achievements and influence of the school environment affect the career choices and
aspirations of female students in the universities.
The uniqueness of this study is that the focus was on first year female students.
The reason was that since the first year students had just entered the university, there was
the possibility of meeting some who already had chosen their ideal careers, others who
were yet to choose a career depending on how well they perform, those who have chosen
a career due to what their grades could offer them, those who had chosen careers due to
the persuasion of parents, siblings, friends or role models.
71
It was also to find out among other things some inhibitive factors that inhibit
female students in their career development and how they could be overcome, as well as
the information female students were given about the world of work, the adequacy of the
information students received and how they perceived the usefulness of the career
guidance they receive. To find answers to these the following research questions were
formulated:
1. How do female students in the universities conceptualise career
aspirations?
2. Which career options are predominant among female students in the
universities?
3. What factors influenced the career choices of the female students in the
universities?
4. What inhibitive factors affect the achievement of career ambitions among
female students in the universities?
5. How were female students exposed to career guidance before university
admission?
The study used the descriptive survey method. In all 20 first year female students
were selected. Interview schedule was used to collect the data. Interview items were
designed by the researcher. In selecting the subjects for the study, simple purposive
sampling was used to select 10 female students each from first year female students of
University of Cape Coast and University of Education, Winneba who were entering the
universities directly from Senior High Schools, those on Study Leave and those on
Distance Education Programme.
72
Interviews were conducted by the researcher at the convenience of the
respondents and were tape recorded with the respondents’ permission. The interview data
were categorized into themes to reflect the research questions. The thematic approach to
qualitative data analysis was employed.
For Research Question 1, it was found out that female students’ conceptualisation
of career aspiration normally became prominent during adolescence. It was during
adolescence that many changes occur that strongly influenced the development of career
preferences and aspirations. However, it came out that career guidance programmes were
not given any prominent attention during adolescence and also that lack of family
involvement in the career choice process appears to cause their inability to make
decisions.
Research Question 2 was on which career aspirations were predominant among
female students in the universities. It was found that there was a wide range of career
options in the universities but the female students seemed to be more interested in
traditional female careers and did not seem confident in pursuing male dominated
careers. Although most of the respondents seemed to hold the same view, it was also
evident that a lot of females were now venturing into almost every career, to the extent
that some were even more successful than their male counterparts.
Concerning Research Question 3, the study revealed that factors that influenced
the career choices of female students in the universities included gender influence,
occupational status and educational levels of parents, socio-economic status, the
influence of other women’s achievement and influence of school environment.
Concerning gender influence it came out that families encouraged the educational and
73
career aspirations of male children more than those of females. However, girls appeared
to learn quickly certain adult statuses which were available to them, reflecting societal
sex role expectations. Again in contrast to boys, girls were faced with conflict between
their future careers and commitment to marriage and family.
Another factor that influenced female career choices and aspirations was the
socio-economic status of families. It was observed that students from higher socioeconomic statuses were exposed to a wide range of professional occupations and were
likely to be knowledgeable of the choice of professional careers. Young females who
came from low income families were confined to experiences of their relatives and
friends.
It was also observed that the school environment affected career choices of
students. It was clear that adolescent girls were easily influenced by the kind of school
environment they experienced and the kind of role modeling and attention they received
from their teachers. Female students who attended all girls’ schools seemed to be more
encouraged to achieve beyond the stereotypical roles of women, women of higher status
and female role models and demonstrate higher self confidence and higher level of career
aspirations.
The influence of achievement was also another factor that the study revealed.
Adolescent girls who were high achievers showed a great interest in professional and
scientific careers.
Research Question 4 was used to find out about the inhibitive factors that affected
female students in their career development. Marriage, childbearing, societal perception
of the career woman, lack of parental encouragement were some of the inhibitive factors
74
that came out. The result showed that female students who were married had to go
through a lot of role conflicts. Female students who were married were faced not only
with career related challenges but also that of reproduction and home management roles
as well.
Societal perception of career women, as revealed by the study, indicated that
some societies still felt that a woman’s place is in the kitchen and as such perceived
career women as non conformists, witches and deviants. However, some now saw career
women as partners in development, role models to younger girls and responsible women.
The study finally looked at the extent to which female students were exposed to
career guidance before university admission and how it impacted on their career choices.
It came out that there were no proper structures in place in most Senior High Schools for
effective career guidance services, so a lot of female students did not get any help so far
as choice of future career was concerned. However the few that had the exposure and
went through the service right from first year at the Senior High Schools, were
comfortable with their career choices and had high aspirations.
5.2
Conclusion
Researching into sensitive topics such as this usually brings out fascinating
conclusions. Issues concerning women’s career choices and factors that influence these
choices are of utmost relevance to contemporary philosophy of education. Women’s role
in education and society building is of paramount importance to policy makers, education
practitioners and poverty reduction activists. We are all aware of the critical challenges
faced by female students in higher education. Women sometimes face capacity
75
limitations artificially imposed by society through policies and gender insensitive
programmes. Until women efforts and performance is encouraged and rewarded in a
results-oriented way, demand for education by women will always face insurmountable
challenge. This section attempts to draw conclusions from the key findings or this study
upon which recommendations are made.
Concerning female students’ conceptualisation of career aspiration and choice it
was evident that it is during the adolescent stage that the development of career
preferences and aspirations are strongly influenced. This finding makes it evident that
the harm to women’s career ambitions and aspirations is sometimes done at the early
stages of education. If girls do not have healthy career guidance at secondary schools,
they will carry this perceptual baggage through their education and thereby negatively
influenced in the choice of careers. The study therefore highlighted the need for educators
to assume a more assertive role in providing programmes to assist the youth, especially
the female students in career choice. Understanding the key role that the family and
community play in the process requires educators to reach beyond traditional youth
audiences and engage parents in understanding the vital role they play in adolescent
career choice.
In finding out about which career options and aspirations are predominant among
female students, it came out clearly that although many of the female students were now
venturing into almost every career to the extent that some were even more successful than
their male counterparts, others were still not confident in pursuing male dominated
careers, especially in the science related fields where there are still few female students.
Career stereotyping whether wittingly or unwittingly done, tends to affect women’s
76
confidence in making bold attempt at career choices. Sometimes females students who
finds themselves in male dominated courses at the universities are ridiculed, isolated and
feel unwelcome by their male counterparts. This becomes a big worry for this day and
age and the impetus for girls to break the career barriers is frustrated. This means that
much needs to be done to encourage more females to pursue science courses to enable
them venture into this traditional male dominated areas.
It is interesting to note that despite the numerous influential factors that were
focused to affect the female students in their choices of career more females were now
confident to pursue any career.
The findings also highlighted some inhibitive factors that affected female students
in their career development.
Marriages, childbearing, societal perception of career
women, lack of parental encouragement were among some of the inhibitive factors. The
implication of this situation is that most female students are not able to pursue careers
that may give them full satisfaction and make them contribute their best to national
development. Until society makes bold attempt to address these factors many capable
women will be excluded from higher education to the detriment of the country’s
development.
It was also found that most of the female students had little or no knowledge of
career guidance. Again the study also revealed that there were no proper structures in
place in the Senior High Schools for effective career guidance services. This implies that
most students’ knowledge about the world of work was inadequate and therefore lacked
the necessary information which could have helped them to relate their capabilities to
their occupational choices.
77
The few students who had career guidance in their schools however portrayed
awareness of the benefits they had derived from such a service and were pursuing their
desired choices of programme of study in the university. Lack of career guidance meant
that students could not make rational and informed choices of their future careers.
5.3
Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of the study, the researcher makes the following
recommendations:
Educators (Government, GES and Schools) should develop programmes and
strategies that assist both parents and youth especially female youth in exploring a wide
range of careers that can open the door of emerging and non-traditional career choices.
Educators, should provide adolescent girls with learning opportunities that will
expose them to situations that they will encounter in various types of careers in order to
provide them with greater understanding of career options.
Since career development programmes provide meaningful learning experiences
that facilitate the development of self-efficacy in female students’ aspired career,
educators should work with communities to identify resources that would help female
students improve their career self-efficacy and career related skills.
To encourage female students to pursue courses and careers in non-traditional
career options, a systematic and comprehensive school counseling programme with a
career development component that aligns with career domains in national standards
should be instituted and implemented. For example a school-wide career conference or
78
fair that allows female students to meet female professionals should be organized at the
school level.
Also a variety of work fields should be made part of the school curriculum so that
female students could be mentored to pursue at least one work field in addition to any
other course.
Schools should offer field practice projects for female students, especially those who
pursue science and technical related courses to actually learn specific aspects of a
particular career. These types of activities will provide learning experiences for female
students to better understand the wide-range of careers and also understand their unique
career related set of interest and skills.
School authorities should also work with community agencies to identify
resources that may serve as field-trip sites for female students.
Education policy makers should collaborate with teachers and, more especially,
Counselors in designing a curriculum that helps female students apply content area of
their study to career options.
School Counselors should help teachers to create class project that require
students to research into selected occupation of interest and apply the course content to
the particular occupation.
School authorities should make sure Counselors develop and deliver classroom guidance
activities geared towards helping students understand themselves in relation to traditional
and non-traditional careers.
Female students should be helped by role models and Counselors to build their
confidence to aspire to traditionally male-dominated careers. Female students should be
79
helped to examine their personal assets, family resources, and any supportive systems
from their school and religious bodies, District Assemblies and religious bodies that can
help them overcome their perceive barriers to certain types of careers.
Career guidance providers should involve parents, friends, siblings, teachers and
others in career guidance activities
Due to the fact that there are influential factors (gender, etc) that affect the career
choices and aspirations of female students, families and communities should be educated
by schools, on the benefits of educating females by removing all forms of discrimination
against them.
Despite the influence parents have over their children’s career development, there
should be a variety of resources that provide the information they would need to approach
the task effectively.
Governments and educators should put in measures, like loans schemes,
scholarship and other supportive systems in place to help students, especially females,
from low socioeconomic status, to encourage them to aspire to desired careers.
Parents should be encouraged to both communicate about work and career with
their children and show faith in their children’s abilities to be successful, and improve the
career development outcome of the female student.
Distance learning should be encouraged among married women to enable them
perform their roles as house wives and mothers, and learn as well as fulfill family
responsibilities.
Every Senior High School should have proper structures put in place to provide
effective guidance services.
80
Career programmes for schools should be based on an established national
standard.
Counselors should arrange to parents individually and collectively to disseminate
information on how to facilitate their children’s career development
Career service providers should assist students, more especially female students
by availing to them a wider source of career information to help them explore different
alternatives.
All stakeholders, (parents, educators, government) should put in place
interventions to address these major factors, otherwise it will be very difficult for female
students who want to pursue higher education and non-traditional as well as traditional
female jobs to succeed.
The use of ICTs for regular and Distance learning has very special usefulness for
women due to the uniqueness of their multiple roles, every female student should be
encouraged and motivated to learn and use ICT. Institutions should provide intensive
support systems which could help meet the learning styles of female students.
Lack of career guidance meant that student could not make rational and informed
choices of their future careers.
5.4
Suggestions for Future Research
It is suggested that further research should look into the career aspiration needs of
female students’ right from the Senior High Schools so as to redesign comprehensive
career guidance programmes to meet their specific and unique needs.
Another area for further research will be career opportunities in Ghana for
females.
81
REFERENCES
Ackummey, M. A. (1988). An evaluation of guidance and counseling course of the Bachelor of
Education degree programme at the University of Cape Coast (Unpublished thesis,
UCC.)
Ackummey, M. A. (2003). Organization and Administration of a School Guidance Secondary
Programme. Accra : Media Graphics and Press Limited.
Akinde, E. A. Sokan, B. O. & Osarenren, N. (1996). An introduction to guidance and
counseling. Ibadan Caltop Publications.
Albert, K. A., & Luzzo D. A. (1999). The role of perceived barriers in career development: A
social cognitive, Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 431-436.
American Association of University Women, (2004). Under the microscope: A decade of
gender equity projects in the sciences. Washington, DC: Author.
American School Counseling Association. (1997). National standards for school counseling
programmes. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Archer, (1985). Career and/or family: The identity process for adolescent girls. Youth and
Society, 16, 289-314.
Astin, H. S. (1984). The meaning of work in women’s lives: A sociopsychological model of
career choice and work Behavior. Counselling Psychologist, 12, 117-126
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G.V., & Pastorielli, C. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs as
shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development, 72,187206
Bertz, N.E, & Hackett, G. (1982). The relationship of career-related self-efficacy expectations to
perceived career options in college women and men. Journal of Counselling Psychology,
42,22,26.
Bertz, N. E. & Hackett, G. (1997). Application of self efficacy theory to the career assessment of
women. Journal of Career Assessment, 5, 383-402.
Birk, J. M & Blimline, C.A (1984). Parents as career development facilitators: an untapped
resource for the Counselor. The School Counsellor, 31, 310-317.
Brown, S. G., & Barbosa, G. (2001). Nothing is going to stop me now: Obstacles perceived by
low-income women as they become self-sufficient. Public Health Nursing, 18, 364-372.
Brush, S. G. (1991). Women in sciences in engineering. American Scientists, 79, 104-419.
82
Burlin, F. D. (1976). The relationship of parental education and material work and occupational
status to occupational aspirations in adolescent females. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 9, 99-104.
Callahan, C. M. & Reis, S. M. (1996). Gifted girls, remarkable women. In K. D. Anolds, K. D.
Noble, et al. (Eds.) Remarkable women: Perspectives on female talent development (pp.
171-192). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.
Card, J. J., Steel, L., & Abeles, R. P. (1980). Sex differences in realization of individual potential
for achievement. Journal of Vocational Behavior.
Chatterjee, J., & McCarrey’s, M. (1991). Sex-role attitudes, values and instrumental-expressive
traits of women trainees in traditional vs. nontraditional programmes. Applied
Psychology: An international Review, 40(3), 281-297.
Chen, C. P. (1997). Career projection: Narrative in context. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
54, 279-295.
Compora, D.P (2003). Current trends in distance education: An administrative model. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 11(2)
Corder, J., & Stephen, C. W. (1984). Females’ combination of work and family roles:
Adolescents’ aspirations. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 391-402
Dabic, M, (1994). “Women and Academic careers in Holand”: “Equality and Partnership
management in central and eastern European counties. Future strategic goals and
pbjectives. Conference publication Wolfheze, holandia, 1-3 Wrzecenia.
Danziger, N. (1983). Sex-related differences in the aspirations of high school students. Sex
Roles, 9, 683-694
Day, J. C & Newburger, E. C. (2002). The big payoff: Education attainment and synthetic
estimates of work-life earnings. Columbia Ohio: ERIC Clearing House on Adult, Career,
and Vocational education.
DeRidder L. (1990). The impact of parents and parenting on career development Knoxville,
TN: Comprehensive Career Development Project. (ED. 325 769)
Downing, J. A. & Andrea, L. M. (1994). Parental involvement in children’s career decision
making. Journal of employment counseling, 31,115-126.
Ducklin, A; & Frame, B; (2005). Gender attitudes to work and family roles: The views of young
people at the millennium. Gender & Education, 17, 129-142.
Dunnell, P. A., & Bakken, L. (1991). Gifted high school students’ attitudes towards career and
sex roles. Roper Review, 13, 198-202.
83
Eccles, J. S. (1985). Why doesn’t Jane run? Sex differences in educational and occupational
patterns. In F.D. Horowitz & M. O’Brien (Ed.), The gifted and talented: Developmental
perspectives Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (pp. 251-295).
Eisenmann, L (Ed.) (1984). A Historical Dictionary of Women’s Education in the United States.
Greenwood Press.
ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 325 769. Teacher Learning
Evans, K. (1995). Barriers to participation of women in technological education and the role of
distance education. The Commonwealth of Learning.
Farmer, H. S. & Bohhu, M,. Home-career conflict reduction and the level of career interest in
women, Journal of counseling psychology. 1980 17, 228-232.
Farmer, H. S. & Associates, (1997). Diversity and women’s career development from
adolescence to adulthood. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
Farmer, H.S. (1985). Model of career and achievement motivation for women and men. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 32, 363-390
Featherman, et al. (Ed.), Life-span development and Behavior (pp. 231-258). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Fleming, E. S. & Hollinger, C.L. ( 1994). Project Choice: A longitudinal study of the career
development of gifted and talented young women. Beyond Terman: Contemporary
longitudinal studies of giftedness and talent.
Norwood, NJ:Ablex Publication
Corporation.
Fox, L. H. & Zimmerman, W. Z (1985). Gifted women. In J. Freeman (Ed), The psychology of
gifted children (pp. 219-243). New York: Wiley.
Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (2003/1990). How to design and evaluate research in education.
New York. AcGraw-Hill Publishing company.
Francis, B. (2002). Is the future really female. The impact and implications of gender for 14-16
year olds’ career choices. Journal of Education and Work, 15, 75-88.
Gassin, E. A, Kelly, K. R., & Feldhausen, J.F. (1993) sex differences in career development of
gifted youth. School Counselor, 41, 90-95.
Goldin, Claudia. (2006). The Quiet Revolution that transformed women’s employment,
education and family. The American economic review, vol. 96 No. 2 (mat 2006) pp. 121.
Gottfredson, L. S (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of
occupational aspirations. [Monograph] Journal of Counselling Psychology 28, 545-570
84
Graham, J. W. & Smith, S. A. (2005). Gender differences in employment and earnings in
science and engineering in the U.S. Economics of Education Review, 24, 341-354.
Green, E. (1992). “ The uncertainty of everyday life, 1915-1945” p.57-57 Harper Collins.
Grimstad, J. A. & Way, W. L. (1993). “The Role of Family in the Vocational Development of
Family and Consumer Education Teachers: Implications for Vocatio9nal Education, “
Journal of Vocational Education Research 18, no. 4: 43-80
Gross, M. (1989). The pursuit of excellence or the search for intimacy? The forced-choice
dllemma of gifted youth. Roeper Review, 11,189-194.
Grotevant, H. D. & Cooper, C. R. (1988). The role of family experience in career exploration:
A life-span perspective.
Grotevant, H.D., & Thorbecke, W.L. (1982). Sex differences in styles of occupational identity
formation in late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 18, 396-405
Guerra, A. L. & Braungart-Rieker, J. M. (1999). Predicting career indecision in college
students: The roles of identity formation and parental relationship factors. The Career
Development Quarterly, 47, 255-266.
Gump, J. & Riverse, I. The consideration of race in efforts to end sex bais interest measurement.
Washington D.C. UI.S. Government Printing Office 1975.
Gutek, B. A., & Larwood, L. (1987). Introduction: Women’s careers are important and
different. In B. A Gutek & L. Larwood (Eds.), Women’s career development (pp.7-14).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hanson, S. L. (1996). Lost talent: Women in the sciences. Philadelphia:
Hayghe, H. V. (1997). Developments in women’s labor force participation. Monthly Labor
Review, 120, 41-46.
Heins, M., Hendricks, J. & Martindale, L. (1982). The importance of extra-family support on
career choices of women. Personnel & Guidance Journal., 455-459.
Holland, J. L & Gottfredson, G. D. (1992). Studies of the hexagonal model: An evaluation (or
the perils of stalking the perfect hexagon). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 40,158-170.
Holland, J. L. ( 1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and
work environments. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-Hall.
Holland, J. L. (1959) “ A theory of vocational choices. “Journal of counselling Psychology, (6)
35-45.
Hollinger, C. I. (1991). Facilitating the career development of gifted young women. Roeper
Review. 13, 135-1239
85
Hollinger, C.L. & Fleming E.S. (1992). Project CHOICE: The emerging roles and careers of
gifted women. Roeper Review. 15. 156-160.
Ipaye, T. (1985). Roles and functions of Counselors in Nigerian schools. The Nigerian Journal
of Guidance and Counseling. Vol (1) pg. 87-105.
Jones, K. H. & Womble, M. N. (1997). Perceptions of urban trade and industrial students in the
southeastern USA: school and career related issues. Journal of Vocational Education &
Training. 49, 409-429.
Jones, K. H. & Womble, M. N. (1998). At-risk students’ perception of work and career related
issues. Journal for vocational special needs education, 20, 12-25.
Kalinowska, E. (1995). Women in Public sphere. The situation of women in Poland NGOS
Report. Warsaw, March 1995.
Kenny, M. E. (1990). College seniors’ perception of parental attachment: The value and
stability of family ties. Journal of College Students Development 31, 39-46.
Kerr, B. & Maresh, S. E. (1994). Career counseling for gifted women. In W. B. Walsh, S. H.
Osipow et al (Eds.), Career counseling for women (pp. 197-236). Hilldale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Kerr, B. A. (1991). A handbook for counseling the gifted and talented. Alexandria VA:
American Counseling Association.
Kerr, B. A. (1993). Career assessment for gifted girls and women.
Assessment. 1, 258-266
Journal of Career
Kerr, B. A. (1983). Raising the career aspirations of gifted girls, Vocational Guidance
Quarterly, 32, 37-43.
Kerr, B. A. (1985). Smart girls, gifted women. Columbus, OH: Ohio Psychology Publishing.
Kerr, B. A. (1994). Smart girls A new psychology of girls, women and giftedness. (Revised
Edition). Scottsdale, AZ: Gifted Psychology Press.
Khadlad, J. (2000). Education and career aspirations of Palestinian and U.S. youth. Journal of
Social Psychology, 140, 789-792.
Kracke, B. (1997). Parental Behaviors and adolescents’ career exploration. The career
development quarterly, 45, 341-350.
Kramer, L. R. (1986). Career awareness and personal development: A naturalistic study of
gifted adolescent girls’ concerns. Adolescence, 21(8), 123-131
86
Lawrie, L., & Brown, R., (1992). Sex stereotypes, schools subject preferences, and career
aspirations as a function of single/mixed-sex schooling and presence/absece of an
opposite sex sibling. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 132-138.
Lemkau, J. P. (1983). Women in male-dominated professions: Distinguishing personality and
background characteristics. Psychology of women Quarterly, 8, 144-165.
Leung, S. A., Conoley, C. W. & Scheel M. J. (1994). The career and educational aspirations of
gifted high school students: A retrospective study. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 72, 298-303.
Lobel, T. E., Agami-Rozenblat, O., & Bempechat, J. (1993). Personality correlates of career
choice in the kibbutz: A comparison between career and non career women. Sex Roles,
29 (5-6), 359-370.
Looft, W. R. (1971b). Vocational aspiration of second grade girls. Psychological Reports, 28.
241-242.
Man, w, & Bikons, I, (2000). Education and vocational aspirations minority and female
students: A longitudinal study. Journal of counselling and development, 78, 186-194.
Mandez, L. M. R., & Crawford, K. M. (2002). Gender-role stereotyping and career aspirations:
A comparison of gifted early adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Secondary Gifted
Education, 13, 96-107.
Marso, R., & Pigge, F. (1994). Personal and Family Characteristics Associated with Reasons
Given by Teacher Candidates for Becoming Teachers in the 1990’s: Implications for the
Recruitment of Teachers. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Midwestern
Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, October 15, 1994. (ED 379 228)
Mau, W. C. (2003). Factors that influence persistence in science and engineering career
aspirations. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 234-243.
Mau, W.C. & Bikos, H. (2000). Educational and Vocational aspiration of minority and female
students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling & Development. 79, 61-67
Mazuriak (1995). Dazenie Kobiet poiskich do wyzszego wyksztaicenia ha przelomie xixxx
weiku W “Humanistykia: piec-studia kobiece Z Psychologii, filozofii I historlia, poznah.
McMahon, M. & Patton, W. (997). Gender differences in children’s and adolescent’s
perceptions of influences on their career development. School Counselor. 44, 368-376.
Middleton, E. B. & Loughead, T. A. (1993). “Parental influence on Career Development: An
intergrative framework for adolescent career counseling.” Journal of Career
Development 19, No. 3(Spring 1993): 161-173.
87
Mills, C. J. (1997). Gender differences in mathematics and science achievements: The role of
personality variables. Research Report, John Hopkins University: Center for talented
youth.
Mitchell, I. K. & Krumboltz, J. D. (1996). Krumboltz’s learning theory of career choice and
counseling. In D. Brown, L. Brooks & Associates (Eds.), Career Choice and
Development. (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ministry of Education (1996) Policy Document. Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education by
the year 2005. Accra: Ministry of Education.
Monaco, N. M. & Gaier, E. L. (1992). Single-sex versus co-educational environment and
achievement in adolescent females. Adolescence 27(107), 579-594.
Monks, F. J & Van Boxtel, H. W. (1985). Gifted adolescents: A developmental perspective. In J.
Freeman (Ed.) The psychology of gifted children (pp 275-295) New York: Wiley
Montgomery, J. (1992). Factors that influence the career aspirations of mathematically
precocious females. Paper presented at the Asian Conference on Giftedness: Growing up
Gifted and Talented, Taipei, Taiwan, July 1992. (ED. 352 267)
Mortimer, J.; Dennehy, and Lee (1992),. Influences on Adolescents’ Vocational Development.
Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1992 (ED. 352
555).
MOWAC, (2004). Beijing + 10 report. Accra: Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs
National Science Foundation, U.S.A. Division of Science Resources Statistics (2003).
Nauta, M. M., Epperson, D. L., & Kahn, J. H. (1998). A multiple groups analysis of predictors
of higher level career aspirations among women in mathematics science and engineering
majors. Journal of counseling Psychology, 45,483-496.
NCTE (2004). Statistics on Tertiary Education in Ghana: Ministry of Education.
New York Times October 1998
Nieva, V. F. & Gutek, B. A. (1981). Women and work: A Psychological perspective. New
York: Praeger.
Norby, R. F. (1997). Evaluating progress in gender equity in career for women in science and
technology: The impact of role models on women’s career choices. Electronic Journal of
Science Education, 1(3).
O’Brien, K. M. & Fassinger, R. E. (1993). A casual model of the career orientation and career
choices of adolescent women. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 40, 456-469.
88
O’Neil, J. M., Ohld, C., Tollefson, N., Barké, C., Piggot, T. & Watt, D. (1980). Factors,
correlates, and problem areas affecting career decision making of a cross-sectional
sample of students. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 27 571-580.
Okon, S. E. (1984). Guidance for the 6-3-3-4 system of education. Zaria. Institute of Education.
Orfield, G. & Paul, F. G. (1994). High hopes, long odds: A major report on Hoosier teens and
the American dream. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana Youth Institute.
Osarenren, N. (1995) “An examination of vocational interest and preferences among some
undergraduate students.” In osarenren, N & Hogu A.C. (1995) selected papers on
educational guidance and counselling, surulere, Horin: Awolage commercial Enterprises.
Osipow, S. H. & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1996). Theories of career development (4th ed.) Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Penick, N. I. & Jepsen, D. A. (1992). Family functioning and adolescent career development.
The career development quarterly, 40. 208-222.
Peter, K & Horn I. (2005) gender differences in participation and completion of undergraduate
education and how they have changed overtime. Washington, D.C: National centrer for
education stratistics (ERIC document reproduction services No. ED 84429)
Peterson, G. W., Stivers, M. E. & Peters, D. F. (1986). Family versus non family significant
others for the career decisions of low income youth. Family relations. 35, 417-424.
Phares, J.E. Locus of control in personality. Morristown, N. J: General learning Press. 1976.
Plummer, V.C. Ed. (2004). Gender issues and learning online: learner support in open, distance
and online learning environment, Oldenburg: Bibliotheks – and Information..
Poole, M. E. & Low, B. (1985). Career and marriage: Orientations of adolescent girls.
Australian Journal of Education. 29, 36-46.
Poole, M. E., Langan-Fox, J., Ciavarella, M., & Omodei, M. (1991). A contextualist model of
professional attainment: Results of a longitudinal study of career paths of men and
women. The Counselling Psychologist 19, 603-624.
Przymus (2000). A simple way to increase persistence in distance education. Women in Higher
Education 13 (1), 35.
Punch F. K. (2005) Introduction to social research quantitative and qualitative approaches –
London, Sage publications.
Qureshi, E., Morton, L. L., Antosz, E. (2002). An interesting profile – university students who
take distance education courses have weaker motivation than on-campus students.
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administrations, 5(4).
89
Rainey, I. M. & Borders, I. D. (1997). Influential factors in career orientation and career
aspiration of early adolescent girls. Journal of counseling psychology, 44, 160-172.
Reis, S. M. (1987). We can’t change what we don’t recognize: Understanding the special needs
of gifted females. Gifted Child Quarterly, 31, 83-88.
Sandberg, D.E. ; Ehrhardt, A. A.; Ince, S. E.; & Meyer-Bahlbury, H. F. L. (1991). Gender
differences in children’s and adolescent’s career aspirations: A follow-up study.
Hournal of Adolescent Research 6. 371-386.
Santamaria, J. O. (1985). Counseling women and girls for career development. International
Journal for the Advancement of Counseling 8, 17-24
Santamaria, J.O. (1985) counselling women and girls for career development. International
Journal for the advancement of counselling. 171-188.
Schoon, I. (2001). Teenage job aspirations and career attainments in adulthood: A 17- year
follow-up study of teenagers who aspired to become scientists, health professionals or
engineers. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 25, 124-132.
Schulenberg, J. E., Vondracek, F. W., & Crounter, A. C. (1984). The influence of the family on
vocational development. Journal of marriage and the family, 73. 129-143.
Sebald, H. (1989). Adolescents’ peer orientation: Changes in the support system during the
past three decades. Adolescence, 24 937-946.
Shapiro, D. & Crowley, J. E. (1982). Aspirations and expectations of youth in the United States
Part 2. Employment Activity. Youth and society, 14. 33-58.
Shertzer, B. & Stone, C. (1976). Fundamentals of guidance. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Solomon, Barbara Miller. Inn company of educated women. Yele university press. New haven:
1985.
Stephenson, M. B. & Burge, P. L. (1997). Eliciting Women’s Voices: Vocational choice and
educational climate for women in nontraditional occupational programmes. Journal of
Vocational Education Research, 22, 153-171.
Stitt-gohdes, W. L (1997). Career development: Issues of gender, race and class. Columbus
OH: Center on Education and Training for Employment. The Ohio State University.
(ERIC Information series No. 371)
Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown and L.
Brooks (Eds). Career choice and development: Applying contemporary approaches to
practice (pp. 11-20). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
90
Swanson, J. L. & Woitke, M. B. (1997). Theory into practice in career assessment for women:
assessment and interventions regarding perceived career barriers. Journal of Career
Assessment. 5, 443-462.
Taylor, A. I. & Buku, D. K. (2003). Basics of guidance and counseling. Winneba; Ghana:
Department of Psychology and Education, University of Education, Winneba.
Tinklin, T; Croxford, L; Ducklin, A; & Frame, B; (2005). Gender attitudes to work and family
roles: The views of young people at the millennium. Gender & Education, 17, 129-142.
Troumpoucis, P. (2004). Women reap more benefits from higher education, study finds. Black
issues in Higher Education. 21, 9.
Trusty, J. (2002). African-Americans educational expectations: Longitudinal causal models for
women and men. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80, 332-345.
U. S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau (1992). Women workers: Outlook to 2005.
Washington D.C: US Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education, National Centre for Educational Statistics (2000).
U.S. Department of Education, National Centre for Educational Statistics. (2003)
U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. (2004b) Nontraditional occupation for women.
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) statistics. Erwin Northoff, “FOOD:
Women are invisible actors in Hunger Drama: World News, 2004 February 14.
University of Cambridge. “Fact Sheet: Women at Cambridge.
Victorian station. Queen Quotes. 1 may 2002
Wahl, K. H. & Blackhurst, A. (2000). Factors affecting the educational and occupational
aspirations of children and adolescents. Professional School Counseling. 3, 367-374.
Walker, B. A., Reis, S. M. & Leonard, J. S. (1992). A developmental investigation of the lives of
gifted women. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36, 201-206.
Watson, C. M; Quatman, T., & Elder, E. (2002). Career aspirations of adolescent girls: Effects
of achievement level, grade, and single-sex school environment, Sex Roles. 46, 323-335.
Whiston, S. C. (1989). Using family systems theory in career counseling: A group of parents.
The school Counselor. 36,343-347.
Young, R. A., & Friesen, J. D. (1992). The intentions of parents in influencing the career
development of their children. The Career Development Quarterly, 40, 198-207.hawley,
P. (1971). What women think men think. Does it affect their career choice? Journal of
counselling psychology 18,193-199.
91