VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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© Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1
Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1
Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1
Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 6
Resources ................................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment................................................................................................................................... 6
Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 8
Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 8
Authentication ............................................................................................................................... 9
Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped? ....................................................... 10
Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and mental processes? ............................ 18
Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 28
Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 34
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 35
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 37
Appendix 5: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 41
VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Introduction
The VCE Psychology Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment
advice for Units 1 and 2. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of
teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit.
The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE
Psychology Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.
Administration
Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates
to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA
Bulletin.
Curriculum
Developing a course
A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students
to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly
describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration
of each outcome.
Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Psychology listed on pages
11 and 12 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key science
skills must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of
pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where
students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and
propose solutions to problems.
Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable
students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit.
Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students,
contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses
a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must
include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory
and field work. Other learning activities may include investigations involving the collection of
primary and/or secondary data through observational studies, self-reports, questionnaires,
interviews, use of rating scales, simulations, animations and literature reviews.
Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Psychology; they enable students to explore
concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method. Common
to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key aspects that are
central to the Study Design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using
evidence.
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Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but
findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment
tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are
comparable in scope and demand.
Scientific inquiry focus
The VCE Psychology Study Design enables students to engage with science-related issues
by building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate
scientific investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science
works as a process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve generating,
collecting and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.
Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to
critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and
read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.
The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied
in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media:
Unit
Concept
Issues
1
Importance of attachment.
 Age at which children should start school.
 Adult relationships.
2
Attitudes and stereotypes that may lead
to prejudice and discrimination.
 Application of the Equal Opportunity Act.
 Restricted access to public facilities.
 Gender participation in sport.
The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important
feature of the VCE Psychology Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying
science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding.
The VCE Psychology Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of
study questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical
and creative thinking about the psychology concepts identified in the key knowledge and to
encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding
to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of
different concepts to practical applications.
Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in
the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to
develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a
particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to
students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies.
Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning approach to develop
scientific skills and understanding.
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Designing scientific investigations
Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Psychology. Research
questions of interest may be investigated through a range of research methodologies
including experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should be collected in
order to test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends and relationships
in data and to draw evidence-based conclusions.
An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between
variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated
and which will be controlled.
The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:
research
question
Topic selection phase
problem
definition
report
Reporting phase
Planning phase
experimental
design
evaluation
data
collection
and analysis
Investigation phase
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Topic selection phase
The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or
question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a
question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical
problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified
students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from
brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an
appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in
Appendix 1.
In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may
not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work
directly with their research questions.
Planning phase
Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their
reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the biological concepts
involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the
design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies and suggests how
possible safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues.
In planning an experimental investigation students will formulate a hypothesis that will be
tested by the collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation
outcomes based on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent,
dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables
may or may not affect the outcome. A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided
in Appendix 2. Students should be able to explain how they expect that the evidence they
collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning an investigation, students
may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students should learn the correct
use of scientific conventions, including how to reference sources and provide appropriate
acknowledgments.
Investigation phase
In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative
data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation,
fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note
any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be
recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the
investigation.
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Reporting phase
An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or
relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the biological phenomenon
being investigated. For VCE Psychology, the analysis of experimental data requires a
qualitative treatment of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and random and
systematic errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1.
Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or
problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider
how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make
reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and
uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be
identified and explained.
For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence
will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead
the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the
student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence
alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors.
The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are
recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms
including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the
investigation.
For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1.
Maintenance of a logbook
Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the
student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example,
contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting
back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical
worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a
scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.
The logbook may be digital or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and
may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments;
results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at
the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in
short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations or other student digital records and
presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts;
web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of
simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work done
outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order. Investigation
partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be acknowledged
and/or referenced.
Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.
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Student safety and wellbeing
Teachers and students should note that this course of study provides an academic overview
of psychology and does not have any clinical or diagnostic intent. As with any aspect of
teaching, pastoral care and health issues should be pursued in accordance with the school’s
pastoral care policy (for example, referral to the school’s counsellor).
When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health
and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and activities; legislative
compliance (for example, information privacy, student health records and copyright);
sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to
external influences on behaviour); adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines
(for example, maintaining confidentiality of personal details); debriefing students after
completing learning activities (for example, if learning activities require a component of
deception); respect for persons and sensitivity to issues arising; sensitivity to student views
on the use of animals in research (for example, in the provision of alternatives to dissection).
For more detail regarding relevant acts and regulations regarding student safety and
wellbeing and for codes and principles regarding ethical conduct, refer to pages 8 and 9 of
the Study Design.
Employability skills
The VCE Psychology study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of
learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the
content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills
through their learning activities.
The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising;
Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and
Learning.
The table (Appendix 5) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or
non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within
the VCE study.
Resources
A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list
includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject
associations and professional organisation.
Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it:
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identifies opportunities for further learning
describes student achievement
articulates and maintains standards
provides the basis for the award of a certificate.
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As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable the demonstration of the achievement of
an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory completion of a unit
The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are
extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE
Studies published on the VCAA website.
VCE assessment
will be valid
This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the
outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced way and
without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system. The overarching
concept of validity is elaborated as follows.
VCE assessment
should be fair and
reasonable
Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools,
government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and achievement
of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable and transparent.
The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers in each
study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments should not assess
learning that is outside the scope of a study design.
Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test, project,
practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational schedule) should
give students clear instructions. It should be administered under conditions (degree of
supervision, access to resources, notice and duration) that are substantially the same
for all students undertaking that assessment.
Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of external
review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment results are fair and
comparable across the student cohort for that study.
VCE assessment
should be
equitable
Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain groups of
students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic background, physical
disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location.
Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar
conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This may be
the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for assessment of
an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a different time due to a
student’s absence.
VCE assessment
will be balanced
The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to provide a
range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts and modes the
knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the curriculum. This
assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to demonstrate different levels
of achievement specified by suitable criteria, descriptors, rubrics or marking schemes.
Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results from a
variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a study. Students
may be required to respond in written, oral, performance, product, folio, multimedia or
other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive nature of a study or group of related
studies.
VCE assessment
will be efficient
The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a robust
judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the study design.
Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of precision with those of
efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload and/or stress that unduly diminish
the performance of students under fair and reasonable circumstances.
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Scope of tasks
For Units 1–4 in all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching
and learning program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that
program. They must be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe.
Points to consider in developing an assessment task:
1. List the key knowledge and key skills.
2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the Study Design.
It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however,
teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand.
3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and
design the criteria and a marking scheme
4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key
knowledge and key skills outlined in the Study Design and provide for different learning
styles.
5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several
considerations including:
 the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the
outcome
 the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task
 the likely length of time required for students to complete the task
 when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for
students.
Units 1 and 2
The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision.
Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA.
Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or
other indicators.
In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for
each outcome in accordance with the study design.
Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key
knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks
do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of
an outcome.
A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of
assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment
tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design.
Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of
each outcome in the units.
There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the
units in the Study Design.
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Authentication
Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is
the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed
outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to
completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of
records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her
understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work.
If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a
breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult
to resolve, the following strategies are useful:
 Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to
students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or
electronically without due care.
 Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the
teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss
aspects of the work with the student.
 Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an
early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research.
 Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development.
 Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use
student work from the previous year.
 Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects
the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency
of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to
authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible
breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work
between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and
the implementation of appropriate action.
 Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show
the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can
provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the
authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a
family member.
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Learning activities
Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped?
Area of Study 1: How does the brain function?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Describe how understanding
of brain structure and function
has changed over time,
explain how different areas of
the brain coordinate different
functions, and explain how
brain plasticity and brain
damage can change
psychological functioning.
 design and conduct an investigation to test the capacity of phrenology to
predict personality
 use a PMI (pluses, minuses, interesting) chart to analyse how each of the
different approaches over time has contributed to understanding the
structure and function of the brain
 use a Socratic seminar with one person representing the issues on each
side of: brain versus heart debate; mind-body problem; the value of
phrenology; the value of the first brain experiments; the value of
neuroimaging techniques, to discuss the contribution each approach has
made or not made to understanding the role of the brain
 develop hypotheses for the following research questions:
 Does playing video games improve memory/ affect concentration?
 Does extra-sensory perception exist?
 Does listening to music affect personality?
 Are people who play musical instruments more creative/ analytical than
people who do not play an instrument?
 Are people who play sport more or less emotional than people who do
not play a sport?
 Do younger people learn faster than older people?
 using a ‘storyboard’ graphic organiser, outline the contributions of selected
studies to understanding the role of the brain; include new knowledge about
the brain’s structure and function
 create a model of a neuron clearly showing its key components
 produce a diagram/poster of a neuron with labelled parts
 prepare a written and pictorial summary of the main processes involved in
the transmission of a neural impulse
 visit the Melbourne Museum to view ‘The Mind’ exhibition in the Mind and
Body Gallery (www.museumvictoria.com.au)
 draw a diagram of the human brain and parts of the nervous system,
labelling the two hemispheres, the four lobes of the cerebral cortex;
describe the roles of each part
 model the human brain using physical models, analogies and comparative
anatomy
 dissect a sheep’s brain: identify the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain
(lamb’s brains may be purchased from supermarkets or from a butcher) or
conduct a virtual dissection through the Whole Brain Atlas website
 create a multimedia simulation of the structure and function of the brain
 use clay or other similar material to construct a 3-D model of the brain using
different colours to code for different brain structures; develop a key to
explain the function of each structure
 make a ‘brain hat’ using plasticine, papier mache, a hollowed-out half
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watermelon rind or other suitable modelling materials and label the external
features and sections of the brain; work in groups to produce plans for an
adaptation of the ‘brain hat’ that shows vertical and horizontal crosssections of the brain
use the Answer Key from Tony Ryan’s ‘Thinkers’ Keys’ to list the names of
the various structures within the brain and then construct questions relating
to the structure and function of each of the names supplied
debate: ‘Artificial intelligence has limited capacity’
list the main functions of the spinal cord; investigate how injury or disease
involving the spinal cord affects functionality
create a chart of the divisions of the nervous system including central
nervous system and both divisions of the peripheral nervous system
construct a concept map depicting the roles of the central nervous system,
peripheral nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
provide examples of the effects of each division of the autonomic nervous
system on: heart rate; galvanic skin response; pupils; bladder; lungs;
digestion
use multimedia CD-ROMs (such as PsykTrek and PsychNow) to explore
the divisions of the nervous system and lobes of the cerebral cortex
create a folio of a range of related experiments and activities exploring the
nervous system as outlined in ‘Neuroscience for Kids’
(www.faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html)
visit the Psychworld University website at http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~mwehr/
or visit the ‘Neuroscience for Kids’ website for activities and tutorials to
collect information to explain the role of the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system
produce a poster outlining the areas and main roles of the central and
peripheral nervous systems
in pairs, use chalk and concrete (outdoors) or butchers paper and textas
(indoors), to trace a life-sized outline of each other’s body; each student
uses their own outline to fill in each division of the human nervous system,
using a different colour for each division; labels should be added that
indicate the function of each of the divisions
explore mechanisms involved in synapse formation/pruning, the action of
neurotransmitters, and brain plasticity as outlined in ‘Neuroscience for Kids’
(www.faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html)
use neural mechanisms to discuss the questions: ‘How is a thought
formed?’ and ‘Where does a thought go when it is forgotten?’
divide the class into six groups; each group researches the development of
myelin, synaptic pruning and frontal lobe development in infancy and
adolescence; each group then presents their examples to the class; other
class members use a data sheet to record information and responses
demonstrate human brain plasticity using mirror drawing
visit the Melbourne Zoo and complete the ‘Mere Monkeys’ program to
examine the use of animals in research and the collection of qualitative and
quantitative data
use photographs from the internet to compare the human brain to the brain
structures of other mammals such as a sheep and a mouse
discuss Stephen Hawking’s quote: ‘We are just an advanced breed of
monkeys on a minor planet of a very average star. But we can understand
the Universe. That makes us very special.’ Der Spiegel (17 October 1988),
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thinking about the role of the cerebral cortex in human functioning
 investigate whether some languages are easier to learn than others
 research the psychology behind different rehabilitation techniques used for
people with acquired brain injuries
 prepare a pamphlet that explains the cause of a neurological disorder, for
example Parkinson’s disease
Detailed example
Aims:
 construct a model of the human brain using clay or a similar material (Part A)
 evaluate analogies for the structure of the brain (Part B)
 compare the structure of a human brain with that of a sheep or mouse (Part C)
Part A Modelling the human brain
Materials: textbook diagrams, internet models or other pictures of the brain, clay (or plasticine, playdough,
papier mache), black pen, paint colours, sharp instrument, piece of paper.
Method: provide students with the following directions:
 Refer to pictures of the brain to shape the clay into a model of the brain.
 When modelling the brain use the sharp instrument to model major fissures, gyri and sulci.
 When the clay brain is dry, use different colours to map out the hind brain, midbrain and forebrain. Also
identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and the primary cortex for each of these lobes.
 Use a fine black pen to number the locations of chosen brain structures
 Create a key for the brain model.
Students discuss and then summarise their findings in their logbooks. They could include digital photographs of
their brain models. They should:
 Note the similarities and differences between different parts of the brain.
 Identify the strengths and limitations of their brain model.
 Consider one aspect of brain structure which could not be represented by their model and suggest a way
that this feature could be modelled or represented.
Conclusion: As a class, discuss and reflect on the ability of scientific models, such as their models of the brain,
to organise and understand observed phenomena.
Note: This activity could also be adapted to create a model of a neuron.
Part B: Analogies for brain structure
Analogies are often used in science to describe phenomena and concepts. This activity explores one analogy
for brain structure.
Tasks:
1. Undertake research to describe how the following are analogous to parts of the brain:
 a cabbage
 a raisin
 a pillowcase
 string cheese
 a walnut
 a grapefruit
 an avocado
2. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the use of analogies in describing brain structure.
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3. Suggest how analogies may be used to describe brain function.
Part C: Comparison of human, mouse and sheep brains
In groups, provide students with images of a human brain and another mammalian brain typically used in
psychological research (for example, sheep or mouse). Alternatively, you could ask each group to find their own
images of the brain for each animal.
Using these images and a data sheet, ask students to record the differences in the structure of the hindbrain,
midbrain and forebrain of each brain. You may also allow them to consult other sources of information to
complete this structural comparison, for example the size or weight of each structure.
Then ask groups to discuss the ability of scientific models developed using animals brains to organise and
understand observed phenomena and concepts related to human psychological functioning. Ask them to
consider the questions:
 Why might using models and photographs of such animals’ brains be useful?
 What might researchers need to consider when using animal models to research particular neurological
disorders?
Extension activity: Students work in groups to choose a particular human neurological condition (for example,
Parkinson’s disease) and research how animal models have been used to develop human models for the
disorder.
Area of Study 2: What influences psychological development?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Identify the varying influences
of nature and nurture on a
person’s psychological
development, and explain
different factors that may lead
to typical or atypical
psychological development.
 analyse twin and adoption studies to examine the influence of
environmental factors on development, focusing on the elements involved in
the research design of such twin and adoption studies
 use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the contribution of twin and
adoption studies to the understanding of hereditary and environmental
factors
 watch a video or YouTube production examining the nature versus nurture
debate, then conduct a class debate on the interaction between heredity
and environmental factors in influencing psychological development
 watch and analyse the ‘7 up series’ as an example of a longitudinal study
and the changes that occur during childhood and adolescence
 visit the Melbourne Zoo and complete the ‘Mere Monkeys’ program to
examine the use of animals in research and the collection of qualitative and
quantitative data
 use Piaget’s theory to design, construct, test and report on a toy for a young
child
 analyse Piaget’s theory and use a decision chart to provide a three-point
criticism of the theory in light of more recent research
 complete a tri-Venn diagram outlining the emotional, cognitive, and psychosocial development of a particular age group, for example a five-year-old
child
 use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the role of critical and
sensitive periods in psychological development
 in groups, choose an aspect of psychological development (for example,
language) and investigate the role that critical and sensitive periods have in
that aspect of development; each group role plays the outcomes of their
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investigation to the rest of the class
use a flow-chart graphic organiser to explain the key scientific steps in a
chosen study conducted by Harlow and/or Ainsworth
visit the Dax Collection (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade:
www.daxcentre.org/collection/) to examine the conceptualisation of
normality, nature of mental illness, safety and wellbeing, ethics, and
legislative issues; note at least one accompanying teacher must have
completed an authorised workshop prior to the visit
obtain statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (www.abs.gov.au)
related to the incidence of mental illness across the lifespan; present this
data using appropriate statistics
select a mental illness/disorder relating to a particular stage of the lifespan
and complete a brochure/pamphlet outlining the prevalence, age of onset,
symptoms, treatment and agencies/places to get help
design a poster describing the facts and misconceptions about mental
illness; discuss how ‘facts’ can be distinguished form ‘misconceptions’
conduct a class debate about appropriate school starting age using
research relating to the emotional, cognitive and psycho-social development
of children
complete an essay or a poster outlining the influence of television and
computer games on the psychosocial development of an individual
assuming that the class is an ethics committee, decide whether classic
studies investigating psychological development should be approved for
research in today’s society; use a decision-making flowchart to suggest how
these studies could be improved to meet today’s ethical standards
create a graphic organiser that compares mental health and mental illness
discuss why sensitivity is important when discussing concepts such as
‘normality’ and mental illness
use a ‘fish-bone’ graphic organiser to understanding the conceptualisation
of normality
use multimedia CD-ROMs (such as PsykTrek and PsychNow) to explore
systems of classification of mental conditions and disorders
create a mental wellness poster
organise guest speakers on the topic of mental health; begin with your
school psychologist or counsellor and consider inviting local mental health
workers
view the video series: Collected Thoughts 1,2 3 (produced by the Dax
Collection) and reflect on the experience of mental illness for a broad
audience
ask the school counsellor to speak to the class about the mood disorder
major depression and the support available for people that may be suffering
from this disorder
visit the Mental Illness Fellowship of Australia website
(www.mifellowshipaustralia.org.au/) and evaluate their factsheets
(Understanding depression; Understanding anxiety; Understanding
schizophrenia) in terms of the information contained and the level of detail
presented relative to the knowledge required of a Unit 1 Psychology
student; work in groups/pairs/individuals to adjust a chosen factsheet to suit
the level of a Unit 1 Psychology student
use a graphic organiser to understand the major categories of psychological
disorder
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 use a Socratic seminar with one person representing: typical behaviours;
atypical behaviours; adaptative behaviours; maladaptive behaviours; mental
health; and mental disorder, and discuss how normality may be
conceptualised
 interview an elderly person to determine whether they believe personality
can change over a lifespan; report your results as a short personality profile
of the interviewee
 choose one of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development; use a
decision-making tree graphic organiser to consider the positive and
negative outcomes that could result from the crises in that stage in relation
to healthy personality development
 use a PMI chart to consider the strengths and limitation of Erikson’s
psychological theory of development as a model for explaining a person’s
personality
 imagine that you are Piaget; develop a consent form for one of his tests of
cognitive development that would satisfy today’s ethical requirements
 conduct the tests of cognitive development described by Piaget on a young
child, adhering to appropriate ethical requirements
 use a media article such as http://news.sciencemag.org/2013/02/one-twopunch-infection-stress-may-lead-schizophrenia to consider the accuracy of
the scientific information included; re-write the article so that a general
adolescent aged 15 to 17 could understand the concepts involved
Detailed example
GRAPHIC ORGANISER OF MENTAL DISORDERS
Aim:
To use a graphic organiser, for example a lotus-diagram or mind map, to explain the major categories of
psychological disorder.
Method:
Students should be provided with the following prompts:
On your graphic organiser, put mental disorder in the centre.
For the first group of radiating concepts, include the major categories of psychological disorder.
For the second group of radiating concepts, ask students to consider major biological, psychological and social
factors that contribute to the development of each disorder.
For the third group of radiating concepts, ask students to consider the treatment and support options that are
available for each disorder.
Discussion:
Students should then be encouraged to share their completed graphic organiser with the class. Class discussion
could then encompass differences between student’s graphic organisers, conceptualisations of normality and
how particular conceptualisations of normality have informed the construction of their graphic organiser.
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Area of Study 3: Student-directed research investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and communicate
a substantiated response to a
question related to brain
function and/or development,
including reference to at least
two contemporary
psychological studies and/or
research techniques.
 the teacher provides a list of possible research questions from pages 16–17
of the VCE Psychology Study Design; students submit a proposed timeline
and research plan related to a research question of interest; a negotiated
research question is undertaken by the student and monitored by the
teacher
 groups of students investigate a selected and/or negotiated research
question from the set of possible questions on pages 16–17 of the VCE
Psychology Study Design; each member of the group contributes a
nominated newspaper item related to the research question in a class
psychology e-newspaper (for example, letter to the editor, a report of a
psychological issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to a
psychological issue, a cartoon about a psychological issue, interviews with
a psychologist, neuroscientist or other psychological professional)
 the teacher selects questions from each of the six topic areas listed on
pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design that have a ‘case study’
theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a response to the
case study using an inquiry approach; sample questions in this category
include: How can brain trauma in injuries affect cognitive function? How has
the treatment of mental illness changed over time? How are different
neuroimaging techniques used to study brain structure and function? How
does foetal alcohol syndrome affect nervous system functioning?
 the teacher selects questions from each of the six topic areas listed on
pages 16–17 of the VCE Psychology Study Design that have an
‘experimental’ theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a
response to investigate the research question of interest; sample questions
in this category include: Are ‘brain training’ programs effective? Does the
use of technology prior to sleeping change sleeping patterns? Are emotions
contagious?
Detailed example
AN INQUIRY APPROACH TO EXPLORING A CASE STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY
The research investigation in this area of study must build on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of
Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected
research question. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account
number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 To whom will students be expected to communicate their results?
 What alternative communication formats will students be able to consider?
 To what extent will students work on their research and response inside and outside class time, and how will
student work be monitored and authenticated?
 Will time be allocated in class for students to present their work to other students?
Background information
This detailed example has been developed with an inquiry-based framework in mind. There are many methods
by which students may undertake inquiry-based learning; this detailed example has been informed by the
following article by Jeni Wilson and Kath Murdoch:
http://extranetportal.bne.catholic.edu.au/re/REL/Documents/CU8%20What%20is%20inquiry%20learning.pdf
In essence, the inquiry process involves a question, a hypothesis, data collection and analysis, drawing
conclusions, making generalisations, reflection and authentic action. The process of answering their question
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should involve students considering prior knowledge to gather new ideas. Students should then gather new
information (for case studies, this will mostly involve secondary data; however, some primary data may also be
collected) and organise this information into new ideas. They will then draw conclusions, reflect upon their
learning and also take some sort of personal action related to a specific outcome and audience to conclude their
investigation.
Question selection phase
In order to manage the inquiry process in the class, the teacher determined that students in the class could work
independently or in groups to research one of four questions related to content across Unit 1 Area of Study 1
and Area of Study 2:
 How can brain trauma in injuries affect cognitive function?
 How has the treatment of mental illness changed over time?
 How are different neuroimaging techniques used to study brain structure and function?
 How does foetal alcohol syndrome affect nervous system functioning?
The teacher provided relevant case studies related to these questions, but students were also able to research
and provide their own case study of interest.
The task involved students investigating the psychological aspects of the case study and responding to the case
study by developing a relevant media product (such as an information pamphlet, YouTube video, multimedia
product or community campaign) for a selected audience.
Planning phase
Communication of psychological concepts is the major focus of this task. Students should be clear about the
purpose of the intended communication to a specified audience.
Students may need guidance in considering appropriate communication formats for specific audiences.
Teachers should work with students to:
 set timeframes and milestones for the task
 determine the nature of the work that is to be completed inside and outside the classroom
 ensure that ethical guidelines are followed such as confidentiality and respect for persons with and sensitivity
to issues around psychological disorders, particularly if the research involves conducting surveys or
interviews to collect data
 check the scientific accuracy of content prior to students working on the response (communication) phase.
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Investigation phase
It is important that students structure the research component into a set of manageable tasks that constitute a
personal work program. Work in this phase can be done outside the classroom and recorded in students’
logbooks, with class time allocated to check on progress and the quality of material being researched.
This activity provides students with opportunities to learn how to document resources and acknowledge
contributions using standard conventions.
Reporting phase
Students could use a variety of formats to present their response to the investigation question to a specific
audience. Teachers may wish to limit the number of formats used and to set time and/or word limits. The
response communication should clearly address the question, demonstrate that the student understands the
relevant psychological concepts and be appropriate for the nominated audience.
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Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and
mental processes?
Area of Study 1: What influences a person’s perception of the world?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Compare the sensations and
perceptions of vision and
taste, and analyse factors that
may lead to the occurrence of
perceptual distortions.
 undertake an eye dissection, examining the main structures and
components of the eye
 participate in activities that illustrate phenomena in the visual perception
system, for example locating the blind spot, producing a negative afterimage
 undertake activities from the Neuroscience for Kids website at
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chvision.html that illustrate
phenomena in the visual perception system
 undertake the Ishihara test for colour blindness and explain how these tests
relate to the sensation and perception of visual stimuli
 use a graphic organiser of choice to illustrate the processes of sensation
and perception of visual information
 discuss Cristina Marrero’s quote: ‘The Scientific Method is a wonderful tool
as long as you don’t care which way the outcome turns; however, this
process fails the second one’s perception interferes with the interpretation
of data. This is why I don’t take anything in life as an absolute…even if
someone can ‘prove’ it ‘scientifically’.’
 use a ray box to demonstrate the concept of accommodation
 use a pen to demonstrate the concept of convergence: focus on the tip of
the pen and move the pen closer to the nose; notice the change in muscular
tension in the eye as the pen moves closer to the nose; an observer can
record what happens to the eyes as the experimenter tries to keep the pen
tip in focus as the pen moves toward their eye
 participate in activities that involve focusing on ‘magic eye’ artworks
 investigate artworks involving visual illusion, for example Escher’s
tesselations
 consider how monocular depth cues are used to create the perception of
depth and the appearance of three dimensions in a chosen artwork
 participate in activities that involve using 3D glasses
 take photographs of symbols from the everyday world (for example, at work,
on the way home from school, during weekend activities); in groups, present
the symbols and describe how Gestalt principles are used to create
meaningful perception of the images
 conduct a practical activity based on the Stroop effect
 participate in activities that demonstrate inattentional blindness/change
blindness
 undertake an adapted version of the ‘Investigating Eyesight’ lesson plan
from the Surfing Scientist (available from
www.abc.net.au/science/surfingscientist/lessonplans/)
 analyse ambiguous figures to understand the effect of psychological and
social factors on visual perception
 comment on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s quote from The Memoirs of Sherlock
Holmes that: ‘You see but you do not observe’ in terms of visual perception,
attention and distortion of perception
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 research journal articles relating to taste, for example Plassmann et al.
(2007) ‘Marketing actions can modulate neural representations of
experience pleasantness’ (full-text available at
www.pnas.org/content/105/3/1050.full), to develop an information campaign
that informs others of the influence of marketing as a psychological factor
on the perception of taste
 complete a flow chart identifying the key scientific components relating to
taste; see journal articles, for example McClure et al. (2004) ‘Neural
correlates of behavioural preference for culturally familiar drinks’ (full-text
available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.019)
 create an online blog that reflects on practical activities relating to taste
 undertake an adapted version of the taste illusion lesson plan from the
Surfing Scientist (available from
www.abc.net.au/science/surfingscientist/lessonplans/)
 design and undertake investigations relating to taste receptors for sweet,
sour, salty, bitter and savoury
 investigate the evidence supporting a sixth taste receptor, that of ‘fat’
 compare fMRI images of people with synaesthesia to people without
synaesthesia to understand differences in brain activity of people with
synaesthesia
 undertake experiments that examine the influence of factors such as colour,
temperature, colour intensity, sight and olfaction on the perception of taste
sensations including sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savoury
 design and conduct an investigation that examines psychological factors
such as the effect of labelling and/or price and/or package design on the
perceived pleasantness of particular foods
 analyse the scientific concepts and techniques used in a media article that
looks at factors that influence the sensation and perception of taste, for
example articles from Foodnavigtor.com including:
 Olfaction’s role in taste is powerful, confirms new ‘dual sense’ research
(www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Olfaction-s-role-in-taste-is-powerfulconfirms-new-dual-sense-research)
 Taste, aroma perception influenced by familiarity, says study
(www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Taste-aroma-perception-influencedby-familiarity-says-study)
 Dislike of veggies is in the genes
(www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Dislike-of-veggies-is-in-the-genes)
or use one of the articles from Foodnavigator.com as stimulus for develop a
practical investigation to investigate taste perception
 comment on Robert M. Pirsig’s quote from Zen and the art of Motorcycle
Maintenance, 1974, that ‘For every fact there is an infinity of hypotheses’
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Detailed example
REFLECTIVE BLOG: WHAT INFLUENCES A PERSON’S SENSATION AND PERCEPTION OF TASTE?
This task is staged over a few weeks of class time and involves students undertaking a series of practical
activities as part of the regular teaching and learning program for Unit 2 Area of Study 1.
Students create an online blog that includes a selection of these relevant practical activities that enables them to
compare the sensations and perceptions of taste and analyse the factors that may lead to the occurrence of
perceptual distortions of taste.
For each practical activity, students may be asked to formulate hypotheses or make predictions in relation to
sensation and perception. They will undertake investigations relating to human taste that involve the collection
and recording of data, analysis of data and the methods used to draw evidence-based conclusions relating to
their investigations, and identification of associated scientific theories and models.
In this example, the chosen format for communication of their scientific ideas is an online reflective blog (using a
selected blogging website of choice such as Global2.vic.edu.au). The practical activities may involve the student
conducting an experiment, being a participant in an experiment or acting as an observer in an experiment. The
student may be involved in these activities individually, or as one student in a small group, or as a member of
the whole class. The key knowledge to be addressed includes the processes involved in sensation and
perception: taste as an example of human sensory systems; biological, psychological and social factors that
influence gustatory perception; and the fallibility of gustatory perception systems.
At the time of undertaking each practical activity, the student should record the details of the activity in their
journal/on their blog. Students could be encouraged to take digital photographs to record the data as evidence
of their participation in the practical activities and upload these under the relevant blog entries.
Suggestions for practical activities that could be undertaken by students as part of this reflective learning
journal/blog include:
 influence of colour intensity of different drinks on their perceived sweetness
 influence of being blind folded on correct flavour identification of different flavoured drinks
 judgment of perceived crispiness of food based on noisiness of packaging
 influence of temperature on perceived sweetness
 influence of brand labels and no labels on perceived taste preference
 changes in salt sensitivity with age
 influence of stress on ability to distinguish different flavours/tastes
 influence of the Delboeuf illusion on satiety
 influence of temperature on perceived bitterness
 influence of price on perceived taste preference
 effect of nose-holding on the perception of taste.
The student reflects upon the practical activities undertaken in terms of the overall research question. The
teacher may decide whether to provide a set of guiding questions to assist student reflections or whether to
allow students to make their own reflections based on a general question or related to a specific aspect of the
area of study. The teacher should also determine when the reflections are to be completed, for example
immediately after each practical activity, or after a series of practical activities, or in a block at the end of the
area of study.
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Area of Study 2: How are people influenced to behave in particular ways?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Identify factors that influence
individuals to behave in specific
ways, and analyse ways in
which others can influence
individuals to behave differently.
 create a visual presentation to identify factors that contribute to attitude
change, for example reduction in prejudice
 obtain a marketing survey and evaluate how it attempts to measure
attitudes
 analyse a series of opinion polls published in the major metropolitan
newspapers; consider how quantitative and qualitative data is used to
support the purpose of the survey and consider the validity of the
conclusions drawn from such data
 select a media article which presents a particular viewpoint on a current
issue; construct a graphic organiser which identifies possible social factors
which may have contributed to the attitudes evident in the article
 visit the Dax Collection (Kenneth Myer Building, Royal Parade:
www.daxcentre.org/collection/) to investigate attitudes and stigma
 design, conduct and report on an investigation related to the prevalence of
stereotypes associated with gender or culture (for example, leisure
interests, food preferences)
 as a class, develop and administer a 20-item survey that attempts to
measure attitudes on a class-determined issue; report on the results of the
survey, including a summary of how survey items were developed,
selected and edited, and a survey conclusion
 provide examples of surveys where it would be more appropriate to use
each of the following types of survey items: Likert-type scales,
dichotomous or ordinal questions
 view The Angry Eye with Jane Elliot (seminars on racial prejudice, 2001,
51 min, Video Education Australasia); or view Australian Blue Eyed (2001)
to demonstrate the power of social influence and factors which contribute
to prejudice
 view episodes of Go back to where you came from, an SBS television
series, considering the role that person perception, attributions, attitudes
and stereotypes may have in the development of prejudice and
discrimination; alternatively, consider the influence that a series such as
Go back to where you came from may have on individual and group
behaviour and the role that strategies such as cognitive interventions can
play in changing individual attitudes and behaviours examine the Victorian
Equal Opportunity Act (2010)
www.legislation.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf/a12f6f6
0fbd56800ca256de500201e54/5c0e606e76b324c7ca25796d0014de79!OpenDoc
ument
 to consider what the act says in terms of prejudice and discrimination;
identify the societal attitudes that are reflected in the document; look at an
older version of the act (for example, Equal Opportunity Act 1995 from:
www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/repealed_act/eoa1995250/) and identify
any changes in attitudes between these documents
 take a virtual tour of the Stanford Prison Experiment website, which
features an extensive slideshow and information about this classic
psychology experiment (www.prisonexp.org); discuss the ethics of the
study
 search the internet to investigate the Kitty Genovese case in relation to
the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility (also available on
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PsychNow CD-ROM)
research Stanley Milgram on the internet and summarise the ethical
issues highlighted by his research
research Solomon Asch on the internet and summarise the effect of group
size on the tendency to conform
use media articles on global politics to identify sources of power in terms
of legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, information and referent power
design, conduct and report on an investigation to explore the relationship
between group size and social loafing in the context of meetings; the
report should include commentary on the difficulties associated with
judging social loafing
design, conduct and report on an investigation into the influences of
helping behaviour
view the film Remember the Titans (2000); examine factors which
contribute to the development of prejudice, and the factors which may
help to reduce prejudice and discrimination
view the film Coach Carter (2005); consider the attitudes displayed by key
characters in terms of the tri-component model of attitudes as well as the
role person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes played in
the key events that occurred within the movie
use project-based learning to address an issue relating to prejudice,
discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media
develop a Likert-type scale and administer it to a range of age groups in
order to investigate and report on the relationship between prejudice and
age
use a spreadsheet application or a graphics calculator to create
scatterplots of age and attitude scores to investigate variations in
prejudice with age
develop and administer a Likert-type scale to investigate and report on
gender differences in attitudes to an issue raised in the media
in groups investigate a selected issue relating to either prejudice,
discrimination, bullying, advertising, television, video games or social
media; each member of the group contributes a nominated newspaper
item related to the issue; the group presents the issue in a form for an enewsletter, for example a letter to the editor, a report on solutions to the
issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to an aspect of the
issue, cartoon based on the issue, interviews with stakeholders; a class enewsletter is formed out of all the presentations
as a whole class, explore a single, local issue related to prejudice and
discrimination through a Q&A panel role-play; communicate responses
orally (as a nominated stakeholder) and in written form (from a different
stakeholder perspective to that presented in the oral communication)
collect media articles on issues of prejudice and discrimination (for
example, age, gender, race, culture, sexuality, pregnancy/ breastfeeding);
examine what Victorian/Australian law states in relation to these areas;
consider the language and images (if any) used in the article and discuss
how the media article has been designed to influence individual or group
behaviour
working in groups of four, select and analyse one program designed to
help deal with bullying either at school or in the workforce; present this to
the class in the form of a role-play to show how the program would work
and to explain the psychological basis of the expected effectiveness of the
program; programs might include: ‘Bully Stoppers’
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(www.education.vic.gov.au/about/programs/bullystoppers/Pages/default.a
spx) or ‘Bullying. No Way! (http://bullyingnoway.gov.au/)
 divide the class into teams to research a different media influence on
individual and group behaviour; each team should create a multimedia
presentation and report findings to the class
 consider the influence advertising and marketing has on eating behaviours
in young children
 consider the influence that media, including the nature and prevalence of
advertising material, has on gambling behaviour
Detailed example
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO EXPLORE AN ISSUE RELATING TO PREJUDICE, DISCRIMINATION,
BULLYING AND THE NEGATIVE INFLUENCES OF MEDIA
Aim:
To use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate research questions relating to prejudice,
discrimination, bullying and the negative influence of media.
Introduction:
Students work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into one question relating to prejudice,
discrimination, bullying and negative influences of media and create, compose or produce a product for an
authentic audience.
Teaching notes:
This detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education
(http://bie.org/about).
A PBL approach begins with an open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it
captures students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning
relevant content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or
perform something, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their
communication skills in the process.
Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap in time frame:
 inquire/discover/research
 create/compose/produce
 present/share/promote
Overall four questions relating to prejudice, discrimination, bullying and negative influences of the media are
required for investigation. Teachers may provide these questions or develop these questions in conjunction with
their students.
A manageable way to tackle this task may be:
 determine the four questions to be investigated as a class
 student groups to share their groups’ learning with their class peers
 students to complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the four selected issues that addresses the
following categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders
involved, effect on individual and group behaviour, possible products and/or solutions.
Assessment can include self- and peer-assessment questionnaires and a compare and contrast matrix. In this
way the contribution of each student within any group is accounted for.
Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage.
Science skills:
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation:
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 Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question.
 Students should be able to develop and administer surveys. This may have previously been covered in
class, or teachers may use this problem-based learning activity to develop these skills. Teachers should
check survey items to ensure their appropriateness prior to the survey being publicly distributed. Teachers
should work with students to:
a. identify the style of items in their survey that will allow students to best answer their research question
(for example Likert-type scales, dichotomous or ordinal questions)
b. develop items to be included in the survey that will allow students to best answer their research question
c. develop standardised procedures under which the survey will be administered
d. take into account relevant ethical principles including informed consent, voluntary participation,
withdrawal rights, confidentiality and debriefing
e. determine the number of survey respondents required (for example, five respondents per student).
 Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group including perseverance
and a positive attitude.
Health and safety notes:
There are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity.
Procedure:
Stage 1: inquire/discover/research
Lesson 1 plus some out-of-class time. Students:
 Choose an investigation question (IQ) that interests them personally – ideally they make their personal
interest in it explicit by recording initial ideas in the logbook.
 Form teams of three to four people with some interest in the same IQ. The teacher may facilitate this.
 As a team, brainstorm what they do know and don’t know about the problem/investigation question. What
specific questions do they need to investigate further? Each student should keep evidence of the process in
their logbooks.
 Consider how the IQ impacts upon different people and places – research, identify and describe relevant
individuals, stakeholders and community groups. What specific questions do they need to investigate
further? Students to keep evidence of the process in the logbooks and also keep a record of where they
sourced the information in case they need to return to it later.
Lesson 2 plus some out-of-class time: Students:
 Review the selected IQ and reframe/rewrite it if necessary to include specific parameters (such as particular
places, stakeholders, countries etc.).
 Nominate valid sources, such as agencies, organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to
supply information to help them answer the specific questions they identified that require further
investigation.
 Collect as much information as possible on the IQ by dividing up these tasks to individuals within their group.
Remember to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library
research; surveys; interviews; photo and video documentation; experimental data; and meeting with a variety
of experts with different viewpoints. As students research, it is critical they collect sufficient information that
allows them to explain arguments for and against different stakeholders’ points of view. Each student should
keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries etc.
Lesson 3. Students:
 As a group analyse the evidence collated during their field studies and create charts, graphs and other visual
representations to understand their findings.
Stage 2: create/compose/produce
Lesson 4 plus some out-of-class time. Students:
 Based on their research, ask what specific product/solution they would like to create that addresses the IQ?
Their task is to make public a strong, convincing argument to a real/authentic audience. Does the group
want to design a website, plan a community event, improve an existing project/program, initiate an actionoriented campaign, make a persuasive presentation to relevant stakeholders? Or something else?
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 Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen.
 Make contact with their real/authentic audience and present them a very brief description of the intended
product/solution and the rationale/s for the inquiry into the IQ. Students keep evidence of their contact in the
logbooks.
Lesson 5 plus some out of class time. Students:
 Create the product/solution and collect evidence of the process.
Stage 3: present/share/promote
Lesson 6 plus some out of class time. Students:
 Present the product/solution to class peers for initial review. The randomly selected class peers will complete
an assessment questionnaire (based on criteria in a provided assessment rubric). Complete self- and team
peer-assessment questionnaires.
 Deliver the product/solution to the real/authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly
selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires.
Lesson 7
Students complete a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the selected question that addresses the following
categories: factors that influence the behaviour involved, individual and community stakeholders involved, effect
on individual and group behaviour, possible products and/or solutions.
Area of Study 3: Student-directed practical investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Design and undertake a
practical investigation related
to external influences on
behaviour, and draw
conclusions based on
evidence from collected data.










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How does colour intensity affect the perception of sweetness?
How does price affect the perceived pleasantness of food?
How does sight affect perception of flavour?
How does olfaction affect perception of flavour?
Are attitudes towards asylum seekers influenced by age?
Is helping behaviour influenced by number of people present?
Are exercise preferences influenced by gender?
Are food preferences influenced by culture?
Are attitudes towards same-sex marriage influenced by age?
Are attitudes towards school influenced by culture?
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Detailed example
HOW DOES SIGHT AFFECT PERCEPTION OF FLAVOUR?
The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of
Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of
students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 How much input will students have into the selection of the research question?
 To what extent will all students consider individual research questions, the same investigation question, or
complete different parts to the same question so that class data can be pooled?
 How much input will students have into the selection of the type of investigation undertaken (laboratory work,
literature review, observational studies, surveys or different combinations of investigation techniques)?
 How much input will students have into the design of the investigation?
 Is class data pooling a possibility?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Topic selection phase
In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated during a class discussion of the relationship
between vision and taste, following a set of investigations undertaken in relation to visual distortions of
perception and the location of taste receptors on the tongue. One student commented on a particular type of
jelly bean that was yellow in colour but had a blueberry taste. Other students in the class reflected on further
examples where the foods they ate had a different taste from what they had expected. A further student
comment related to television commercial advertisements promoting a novel food product by showing ‘blindfold’
comparisons of the ‘new’ food versus the ‘old’ food.
From this discussion, students developed a number of research hypotheses for investigation. It was determined
that each group would test their research hypotheses on children from different year levels at the local primary
school. Students selected research hypotheses of interest and worked in groups to perform their selected
investigations.
Sample hypotheses included:
 If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 2 class who are given
pink-coloured milk are more likely to describe it as being ‘strawberry’ flavoured than the children in a Level 2
class who are given yellow-coloured milk.
 If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 3 class who are given
milk that is flavoured with apple flavouring, with no colour change, are more likely to describe the flavour as
‘plain’ when asked to describe its taste.
 If taste perception is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 4 class who have not
been blindfolded will be able to identify samples of fruit (apple, pear, orange, mandarin, strawberry and
blueberry) more accurately than the children in a Level 4 class who were blindfolded.
 If sweetness is directly associated with visual cues, then the children in a Level 5 class who are given
different samples of milk that vary in colour from cream to white are more likely to describe the creamier
coloured milks as ‘sweet’ when compared with the whiter coloured milk samples.
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 identifying the independent, dependent and controlled variables in the experiment, and operationalising
variables
 ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation
 the use of deception in psychological investigations
 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan.
Teachers should work with students to:
 evaluate and refine proposed hypotheses
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 develop consent forms for the investigation
 identify safety aspects of undertaking experiments related to taste, particularly with respect to identification
of possible food sensitivities and allergic reactions, and hygienic handling practices of the food being tested
 determine audience for final report presentation and report format.
Investigation phase
Prior to students undertaking practical investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed
methodologies. A possible general methodology for the experiment is as follows:
1. Contact made with primary school to arrange consent forms to be completed and collected, and confirm
times and venues for investigations.
2. Students plan how the experiment will be carried out to ensure that possible confounding variables have
been controlled.
3. Students determine materials required, including quantities.
4. Students set up a data-recording sheet.
5. Students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of report to a
selected audience.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to
explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed
following evaluation of their experimental design and feedback from investigation participants.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.
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Appendix 1: Scientific investigation
Hypothesis formulation
Once a topic has been identified, students develop a research question for investigation,
which may involve formulating a hypothesis.
Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or
hypothesis that is not testable.
Variables
The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification, control and operationalisation of
variables. A variable is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or
types and can be measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be
numerical, having a magnitude.
Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for
example, metre rulers. ‘Happiness’ is less easily measured and is more likely to be
subjective. It might be measured by, for example, the number of times that someone smiles
in an hour.
In VCE Psychology, students are required to identify and operationalise independent and
dependent variables. Operationalising variables indicates how variables will be specifically
defined and measured in a particular study or experiment. Students should also understand
the need to control other variables (extraneous variables including confounding variables)
that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the interpretation of results.
Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Psychology are specified in Appendix 2.
Developing a testable hypothesis
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or
qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying
hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.
There is no mandated VCE Psychology ‘style’ for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null
and alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and nondirectional hypotheses is not required.
The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a
research question using an “If-then-when” construction process:
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Step 1: Ask a research question of interest: Does food sweetness depend on temperature?
Step 2: Identify and operationalise, as required, the independent variable (IV): temperature
Step 3: Identify and operationalise, as required, the dependent variable (DV): perceived sweetness of food
Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below):
a
b
c
…then…
d
trend indicator
e
…when…
f
If…
relationship phrase
(the
DV)…
(to the IV)
(effect on the DV)
(action by the IV).
…depends on…
...show an increase/
decrease ...
…increased/decreased…
…be greater than/less
than…
…greater/less…
…results from…
…is affected by…
…is directly related to…
…be larger/smaller…
trend indicator
…large/small…
Hypothesis: If the perceived sweetness of food is directly related to temperature, then ice-cream at a temperature of 15 oC
will be perceived by an individual as relatively sweeter than ice-cream at 4 oC.
Notes:
 Different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid
 Some hypotheses may include reference to the specific population involved in the experiment, for example, ‘If
the perceived sweetness of food is directly related to temperature, then ice-cream given to Year 12 students at
Honeybrook College at a temperature of 15 oC will be perceived by individual students as being sweeter than
ice-cream at 4 oC’. More generally, however, the population is described in the introduction of an experimental
report.
 Some hypotheses may include reasons for the inherent prediction.’
Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Accuracy
Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the
accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is
the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an
experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g,
but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not
close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is
known as the ‘measurement error’.
While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in
some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true
value for a particular quantity may be unknown. Often, measurement accuracy is evaluated
by making comparisons with accepted values for a physical quantity.
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Precision
Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other.
Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise
measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given
substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the
experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true
mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be
accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to determine
the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were obtained, then if
the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since the measurements
for the given substance are close to the true value, but the measurements are spread over a
range.
The reproducibility of an experimental method is dependent on its level of experimental
precision. A measurement that is highly reproducible tends to give values that are very close
to each other.
Experimental precision can be improved by:
 repeating the experiment multiple times
 collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples
 practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved.
Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the
magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there
is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values. For
example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g.
A quantitative treatment of precision is beyond the scope of the VCE Psychology Study
Design.
Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility
Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable
and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the
closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on
identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same
laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of
agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test
material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different
laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of
the reliability of an experiment.
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Reliability
Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly
the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a
very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always
produce reliable results.
Validity
Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements
of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s.
Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results:
 internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of
the steps of the scientific research method
 external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are
any other possible causal relationships.
Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single
independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control
variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.
Experimental uncertainties and errors
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being
measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement
result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’.
Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be
eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are
two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors.
Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors.
Human errors
Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the
depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring
the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter
by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r 2. Human errors can be
eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part
of error analysis.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors
cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted
value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by
repeating those measurements.
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Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax
error’).
Random errors
Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always
present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of
uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread
of readings.
Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between
the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument
because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a
transient event.
The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and
calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.
Outliers
Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers must be further
analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Repeating readings
may be useful in further examining an outlier.
Statistical analysis of data
In VCE Psychology students are expected to calculate mean as a measure of central
tendency for a set of data. There is a qualitative understanding that standard deviation is
used to summarise the spread of data values around the mean. Students should understand
that for a normal distribution, 68% of data values lie within one standard deviation of the
mean and 95% of the values lie within two standard deviations of the mean. They should
recognise that standard deviation can be useful for comparing the means and the spread
between two or more population samples, particularly that:
 although data sets may have the same mean they may not have the same degree of
variation, or spread, in the data
 a higher standard deviation represents greater variation, or spread, in the data set.
Calculations of variance, standard deviation and significance between two sets of data are
beyond the scope of the VCE Psychology Study Design.
Presenting and analysing data
To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment,
data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident.
Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to
show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more
clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical
representation used by students will depend upon the type of variables investigated:
 pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is
categorical
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 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent
variables are continuous
 lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables
 scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables
 sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not
necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between
two variables.
When drawing graphs, students should note that:
 the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable is represented on the vertical axis
 the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal
relationship between two variables
 not all experiments will show a correlation between variables
 common types of relationships in psychology include linear, non-linear and cyclic.
Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing
conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with
the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not
go beyond, the data available.
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Appendix 2: Defining variables
The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Psychology.
Type of variable
Definitions
Categorical
Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or characteristic
typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are generally represented
by non-numeric values and may be further classified as ordinal or nominal.
 Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or ranked, for
example, birth order (1st, 2nd 3rd), level of stress (low, medium, high) and
attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
 Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical
sequence, for example, gender colour, taste (sweet, sour, bitter, salt, savoury)
and type of sleep (REM, NREM)
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
Numerical
Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable quantity as
a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They are further
classified as continuous or discrete.
 Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real numbers,
for example distance height (2.85 metres), length of time (12.5 seconds) or
temperature (25.4 °C)
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole
values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one value and the next
closest value, for example, number of neurons in a brain or number of facts
recalled from a list
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
Independent
An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated (selected
or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Dependent
A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after selecting the
independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent variable. Dependent
variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Extraneous
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an extraneous
variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that it
does not threaten the internal validity of experimental results by becoming a
confounding variable.
Confounding
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either directly
or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and can interfere with
the validity of the experiment by providing alternative explanations for experimental
results.
Operationalised
Operationalised variables are variables that have been defined and explained in terms
of how they will be measured in an experiment; for example, if we wanted to
investigate the effect of media violence (independent variable) on aggression
(dependent variable), the terms ‘media violence’ and ‘aggression’ would need to be
defined as they would be investigated in the experiment. ‘Media violence’ could be
operationally defined as ‘exposure to a 20-minute YouTube clip showing scenes of
physical assault’ while ‘aggression’ could be operationally defined as ‘the number of
times a second “participant” is hit with a foam sword’.
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Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based
learning approaches
A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to
examining science-based issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from actual case
studies reported in scientific journals, from local scenarios and issues or from a fictional case
study or scenario, as illustrated in the following example.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Scenario: Flash forward to a time in the future when you have been employed by an advertising company to
come up with a marketing campaign for a new food product. All you are given is the name of the product and
some very basic information. It is now your task to research everything about this product, its competitors, and
its predecessors and to put together a presentation to give to executives of the company that makes the
product.
Task: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including specific scientific
terminology.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Step 3: Plan the actual
investigation/narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Notes:
 problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution.
A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The
skills should link to relevant psychological content. The following example focuses on the
skill of hypothesis formulation.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: What are you trying to find out?
Question: Do older people think differently?
Task: This research question is vague and needs refining to narrow its focus in order to develop a testable
hypothesis.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Possible responses:
Question needs to be more specific:
 Who counts as ‘older’? Both males
and females?
 Think differently from whom? Other
people? Themselves at a younger
age?
 Different types of thoughts – logical,
creative, imaginative, mathematical,
procedural, aspirational, memory
 How do you know whether thoughts
are different?
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Step 3 Plan the actual investigation/
narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Possible responses:
Need to identify dependent and
independent variables and control
other variables.
Independent variable (being
controlled) relates to ‘age’ and could
be:
 males and/or females aged 65
(or nominated age) and over
 males and/or females in stratified
age groups, e.g. between 60 and
64, 65–69 etc.
Dependent variable relates to
Step 4: Test ideas and
obtain further information
(group and/or individual)
Possible responses:
 Need to decide whom the
thinking is ‘different from’.
 Hypothesis example: ‘If
age is related to creative
thinking, then the
drawings of men and
women aged 65 years
and over will show less
imaginative objects in
proportion to concrete
objects than the drawings
of children aged 13 years
and under’.
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‘thinking’ and could be:
 responding to a ‘how would
you…?’ question
 responding to a ‘what you do
differently…?’ question
 recalling items memorised
previously
 explaining how you could do
something
 completing an unfinished picture.
Control of variables is dependent on
selected independent and dependent
variables.
 Not all hypotheses are
testable and not all
variables can be
controlled for some
experiments.
 For this problem,
students generate
possible hypotheses;
provide feedback on
each other’s hypotheses;
modify own hypotheses.
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific
terminology, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.
Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to
investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan
Sample Course Outline – VCE Psychology Unit 1: How are behaviour and mental processes shaped?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term. Teachers
are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the topic area? Which
local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource limitations of their learning
environments?
Week
Area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
©VCAA 2015
How does the
brain function?
Topics
Learning activities
Role of the brain in mental processes and
 introduction to psychology: design and conduct an investigation to test the capacity of phrenology to
behaviour (influence of difference approaches over
predict personality; use the findings to discuss how the nature of ‘psychology’ has changed over
time to understanding the role of the brain; brain
time
structure and function of the central and peripheral  dissect a sheep’s brain; identify the hindbrain, midbrain and the forebrain (lamb’s brains may be
nervous systems; role of the neuron; basic
purchased from supermarkets or from a butcher), or conduct a virtual dissection through the Whole
structure and function of the hindbrain, midbrain
Brain Atlas website
and forebrain; role of the cerebral cortex
 make a ‘brain hat’ using plasticine, papier mache, a hollowed-out half watermelon rind or other
suitable modelling materials and label the external features and sections of the brain; work in
groups to produce plans for an adaptation of the ‘brain hat’ that shows vertical and horizontal crosssections of the brain
Brain plasticity and brain damage (infancy and  list the main functions of the spinal cord; investigate how injury or disease involving the spinal cord
adolescence as periods of rapid development and
affects functionality
changes in brain structure and function; impact of
 demonstrate human brain plasticity using mirror drawing
injury to the cerebral cortex; ability of brain to
undergo adaptive plasticity; use of animal studies  divide class into six groups: each group of students researches the development of myelin, synaptic
pruning and frontal lobe development in infancy and adolescence; each group then presents their
and neuroimaging techniques to develop
examples to the class; other class members use a data sheet to record information and responses
understanding of human neurological disorders
 using photographs from internet, compare the brain structures of other mammals such as a sheep
and a mouse to a human brain; discuss how animal models can be used to understand human
neurological disorders
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
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8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
The complexity of psychological development
(interactive nature of hereditary and environmental
factors on psychological development; role of
critical and sensitive periods; importance of
attachment on emotional development;
development of cognitive abilities; psychosocial
development across the lifespan and influence on
What influences personality)
psychological
development?
Atypical psychological development
(conceptualisation of normality; mental health as a
product of internal and external factors; major
categories of psychological disorders; ‘two-hit’
hypothesis as an explanation for the development
of psychological disorder)
 analyse twin and adoption studies to examine the influence of environmental factors of
development, focusing on the elements involved in the research design of twin and adoption studies
 visit a zoo to collect qualitative and quantitative data related to animal behaviour and to examine the
use of animals in research
 conduct a class debate about appropriate school starting age using research relating to the
emotional, cognitive and psycho-social development of children
 design and undertake an investigation related to Erikson’s work on personality (for example, ‘Is the
degree of reported self-confidence related to hope/loyalty?’)
 use Piaget’s theory to design, construct, test and report on the developmental appropriateness of a
selected toy for a young child
 use a Socratic seminar (with one central person each representing typical behaviours, atypical
behaviours, adaptative behaviours, maladaptive behaviours, mental health and mental disorder to
discuss how normality may be conceptualised
 design a poster describing the facts and misconceptions about mental illness; discuss how ‘facts’
can be distinguished from ‘misconceptions’
Student-directed research investigation (students work independently or in groups to investigate a question related to brain function and/or psychological
Student-directed
development; outline relevant contemporary research that applies to their investigation; analyse the psychological concepts and scientific evidence that
research
underpins their response to a question of interest; draw conclusions based on the evidence collected; and communicate the findings of their research
investigation
investigation in a negotiated format to a selected audience)
18
19
©VCAA 2015
Unit revision
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Sample Course Outline – VCE Psychology Unit 2: How do external factors influence behaviour and mental processes?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term. Teachers are
advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the topic area? Which local
issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource limitations of their learning
environments?
Week
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Area
Topics
Learning activities
Sensation and Perception (sensation and
 undertake an eye dissection, examining the main structures and components of the eye
perception as two complementary but distinct roles;  participate in activities that demonstrate inattentional blindness/change blindness
taste and vision as two examples of human sensory
systems; influences of biological, psychological and  ask students to take photographs of symbols they see in their everyday world (for example, at
work, on the way home from school, during weekend activities); in groups, ask students to present
What influences a social factors on visual perception; influences of
the symbols they have found and describe how Gestalt principles are used to create meaningful
biological, psychological and social factors on
person’s
perception of the images
perception of the gustatory perception)
 create an online reflective blog related to a series of practical activities relating to taste (for
world?
example ‘How does sight affect taste?’)
Distortions of perception (fallibility of visual and
gustatory systems; distortions of perception of taste  investigate the evidence supporting a sixth taste receptor – ‘fat’
 compare fMRI images of people with synaesthesia to people without synaesthesia to understand
in healthy brains)
differences in brain activity of people with synaesthesia
Social cognition (role of person perception,
 analyse an opinion poll published in the media; consider how qualitative and quantitative data has
attributions, attitudes and stereotypes; applications
been used to support the purpose of the survey and consider the validity of the conclusions drawn
and limitations of tri-component model of attitudes;
from the data
attitudes and stereotypes that may lead to prejudice  select a media article that presents a particular viewpoint on a current issue; construct a graphic
and discrimination)
organiser that identifies possible components that may have contributed to the attitudes evident in
the article
How are people
influenced to have
 view episodes of ‘Go back to where you came from’ (an SBS television series) and consider the
Social influences on behaviour (influence of
in particular
roles that person perception, attributions, attitudes and stereotypes may play in the development
status and power within groups, and obedience and
ways?
of prejudice and discrimination
conformity on individual behaviour; influence on
 as a class, develop and administer a 20-item survey to measure attitudes on a class-determined
helping behaviour; factors that influence bullying;
issue; report on the results of the survey, including a summary of how survey items were
positive and negative influences of media on
developed, selected and edited, and a survey conclusion
individual and group behaviour)
 take a virtual tour of the Stanford Prison Experiment website (www.prisonexp.org); which features
an extensive slide show and information about this classic psychology experiment; discuss the
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
ethics of the study
 use a problem-based learning approach to investigate an issue relating to prejudice,
discrimination, bullying and negative media influences; students negotiate the production of a
media product as an outcome of the investigation
 consider the influence advertising and marketing has on eating behaviours in young children;
choose a position on the issue and write a ‘letter to the editor’ arguing for your chosen position
15
16
17
Student-directed practical investigation (students work independently or in groups to develop a question for investigation; plan a course of action to
Student-directed
answer the question and submit plans to the teacher for approval; undertake an investigation to collect the appropriate primary qualitative and/or
practical
quantitative data; organise and interpret the data; reach a conclusion in response to the question; and present findings to a selected audience in a
investigation
negotiated format)
18
19
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Unit revision
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 5: Employability skills
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Annotations of activities or
investigations from a practical
logbook
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Comparative analysis
Communication (sharing information; persuading effectively; writing to the
needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Data analysis
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Evaluation of research
Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the
audience; using numeracy)
Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Logbook of practical activities
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance;
articulating own ideas and visions)
Media response
Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently;
writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions)
Problem solving involving
psychological concepts, skills and/or
issues
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem
solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking
the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Psychology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Report
(oral/written/visual/multimodal)
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly;
writing to the needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Research investigation involving
collection of secondary data
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly;
writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Scientific modelling
Communication (persuading effectively; sharing information)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; applying a range of strategies to problem solving)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management)
Scientific poster
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading
effectively; sharing information; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing
assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing
to learn new information technology skills)
Student-designed practical
investigation
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting
timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of
resources including time management; collecting, analysing and
organising information))
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence
and initiative in identifying problems and solving them)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking
responsibility)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team;
knowing how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information)
Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to
apply technology; using information technology to organise data)
Test
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving)
The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002),
developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published
by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.
©VCAA 2015
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