1. Pendahuluan
Konperensi internasional Air Quality VIII, tanggal 24-27 Oktober 2011 di Arlingotn,
Virgnia AS ini diselenggarakan oleh EERC (Energy and Environmental Research Center)
Grand Forks, North Dakota, AS. Konperensi diawali dengan Preconference Workshop pada
tanggal 23 Oktober 2011. Selanjutnya acara konperensi selengkapnya dapat dilihat pada
Lampiran A, dengan ringkasan sebagai berikut:
a. Hari Senin, tanggal 24 Oktober 2011.
i. Acara dibuka oleh Dr.Gerald Groenewold, Director, EERC, dan dilanjutkan dengan
Keynote Presentation oleh The Honorable Kent Conrad, U.S. Senator, Washington
D.C., Keynote Presentation oleh Ms. Gina McCarthy, assitant Administrator, Officeof
Air and Radiation, EPA, Washington, D.C., serta Lunch Keynote Presentation oleh The
Honorable Biron Dorgan, U.S. Senator, Washington, D.C.
ii. Pagi: panel discussion “New Energy Technologies – Development and Implementation
Challenges”.
iii. Siang – paralel:
Sesi A1 - Carbon Management Strategies; Sesi B1 - Hg Policy, R, Regulations and
Health Issues.
Sesi A2 – Carbon-Based Policy and Regulations; sesi B2 - Lanjutan Sesi B1.
b. Hari Selasa, tanggal 25 Oktober 2011.
i. Pagi:
Sesi A3 – CO2 Capture and Separation I (small-scale and other considerations); Sesi
Sesi B2 – PM and Hg: Emissions, Specification, Transport, and Deposition.
ii. Siang:
Sesi A4 – CO2 Capture and Separation II (largerscale and oxycombustion);
Sesi B3 – Harzardous Air Polutant Measurements.
iii. Petang – malam:
Poster presentations: diadakan pada 6 judul utama, yaitu Group 1 - Policy, Regulations,
and Health Issues; Group 2 - Carbon Management; Group 3 – Measurement; Group 4 PM Control; Group 5 – Hg Control; Group 6- Multipollutant.
Dalam group 4 – PM Control diposterkan 7 makalah salah satunya adalah Makalah
Indonesia “Waste gases and particulates resulted from briquette combustion”.
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c. Hari Rabu, tanggal 26 Oktober 2011.
i. Pagi:
Sesi A5 – Fully integrated CCS Demonstration Projects dan Sesi A6 – Modeling for
CCS – CO2 Storage Capacity;
Sesi B4 - Hg reaction Fundamentals and Other Novel Control Technologies.
ii. Siang:
Sesi A7 – Sox, Nox and PM Control;
Sesi B5 – Hg Control – Sorbent Injection.
d. Kamis, tanggal 27 Oktober 2011.
i. Pagi:
Sesi A8 – Emission Control solutions for Industrial applications;
Sesi B6 – Hg Control – Scrub/Multi-pollutant Systems.
ii. Konperensi ditutup.
e.
Konperensi diikuti oleh 471 peserta dari 21 negara dengan 119 makalah, dengan
sambutan dua Senator AS, yaitu Senator Kent Conrad dan Semnator Byron Dorgan. Makalah
dari Indonesia disajikan pada tanggal 25 Oktober 2011.
2. Hasil Konperensi dan Pembahasan
2.1 Umum.
Sesuai dengan tulisan J. Naisbitt dan P. Aburdene pada tahun 1990, bahwa lima hal
penting yang merupakan tren dunia pada abad ke 21 adalah investasi dan perdagangan bebas,
HAM, demokratisasi, dan lingkungan hidup. Menjadi kenyataan bahwa ke lima hal tersebut
mendapat perhatian berbagai negara di dunia, khususnya mengenai lingkungan hidup meluas
ke dalam berbagai aspek, yaitu politik, sosial, ekonomi, budaya, dan hukum. Bahkan pada
dasawarsa pertama abad ke 21 masalah lingkungan hidup yang mendunia tersebut adalah
tentang perubahan iklim. Disamping akibat adanya polusi gas-gas hasil dari alam dan
industri, polusi juga diakibatkan oleh bahan buangan berupa cairan dan padatan yang
mengotori kulit bumi (lithosfir) dan atmosfir. Dalam 50 tahun terakhir sejak awal tahun
1970-an berbagai pihak dunia internasional menyadari adanya perubahan iklim yang
menyebabkan pemanasan global dalam arti bahwa temperatur atmosfir bumi telah meningkat
cukup berarti sehingga dirasakan makin memanas. Kesadaran dan upaya internasional
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tentang Perubahan Iklim berkembang yang diawali dengan Konferensi Hari Lingkungan
Hidup di Stockholm tahun 1972 dan makin intensif sampai dengan diadakannya UNFCC
COP di Rio de Janeiro tahun 1992 dan COP-13 di Bali, COP-14 di Poznan, COP-15 di
Copenhagen, dan COP-16 di Cancun. Dengan kesadaran bahwa PI merupakan bagian
integral dari pembangunan ekonomi dan perlu ditanggulangi dengan pendanaan internasional
dengan perhatian khusus terhadap negara berkembang dalam memikul berbagai masalah
pembangunannya ditambah dengan beban baru tentang PI. Diharapkan hal itu akan
terpecahkan sesudah tahun 2012 setelah berakhirnya Protokol Kyoto, di mana AS memang
tidak turut menandatanganinya.
Kondisi Perubahan Iklim Global oleh adanya Gas Rumah Kaca (GRK). Gas Rumah Kaca
(GRK) atau Green House Gases (GHG) yang berefek terhadap adanya perubahan ikllim oleh
akibat timbulnya gas-gas CO2, methan (CH4), CFC dari AC, NOx, dan lain-lain yang masuk
ke atmosfir dunia yang makin bertambah dari hari ke hari oleh adanya berbagai sebab
(Gambar 1). Dari skema Gambar 1 diketahui bahwa GRK berasal dari CO2 mengambil
bagian yang terbesar yaitu sekitar 50%. Sisanya adalah gas-gas lain misaknya CFC, methan,
NOx, Ozon dan gas-gas lain yang dihasilkan oleh kegiatan hidup manusia. Oleh adanya GRK
tersebut menyebabkan temperatur atmosfir bumi meningkat dari waktu ke waktu, yang perlu
ditanggulangi oleh masyarakat dunia. Oleh karena itu upaya dunia dalam mengatasi GRK
tersebut terfokus pada upaya untuk mengatasi bagaimana menekan produk CO2 yang tidak
dapat terisap kembali oleh kehidupan di bumi dan masuk ke dalam atmosfir, sudah barang
tentu upaya untuk mengatasi terhadap gas-gas lainnya tersebut. Dari hasil berbagai studi
disimpulkan bahwa CO2 dihasilkan yang terbesar dari deforestasi dan degradasi hutan,
kemudian disusul dari sektor industri manufaktur, kemudian transpoprtasi, rumah tangga dan
lain-lain.
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Efek rumah kaca
Gas-gas radiatif hasil ulah manusia
Gas-gas lain (50%): CFC,methane,
nitrous oxide, ozone
CO2 (50%)
Penggunaan
tanah
Energi, migas, batubara,
Industri lain
Tabung smprot, AC, almari es,
Pertanian, perkebunan, proses industri
Pembabatan/pemBakaran hutan
Seluruh sektor
pasaran
Lain-lain
PLTU
Gambar 1. Peran bahan bakar fosil dan gas-gas lain dalam emisi gas rumah kaca
2.2 Hasil Konperensi
A. Pokok-pokok isi sambutan para Senator dan pejabat penting AS dalam pembukaan
konperensi.
a. Senator Kent Conrad.
Pada waktu ini, AS tergantung banyak pada energi fosil (minyak bumi 37%, batubara
21%, dan gas alam 25%), selebihnya dari energi terbarukan (ET) 8%, nuklir 9%. Sedang
dikembangkan bahan bakar bio cair. Pada tahun 2035 diperkirakan komposis minyak
menurun menjadi 33%, gas alam 24% (shale gas 45%, coal bed methane 8%), batubara 21%,
bahan bakar bio cair 3%. AS merupakan pengimpor bahan bakar gas alam. Upaya lain yang
ditenpuh dalam pemecahan kebutuhan energi adalah dengan memanfaatkan CO2 untuk EOR
(enhanced oil recovery), yang akan mampu menigkatkan produksi minyak tiga kali dari
cadangan 22 miliar barrel oil equivalent (MBOE) menjadi 67 MBOE. Dengan EOR akan
diciptakan kesempatan kerja sebanyak 2,5 juta orang dan menekan impor minyak sebesar 3040%. Juga dikembangkan teknologi batubara bersih (CCT, clean coal technology) dengan
biaya $ 5 miliar untuk memenuhi kebutuhan energi sebesar $ 306 miliar pada tahun 2009
menjadi $ 800 miliar pada tahun 2035 atau sekitar 95 Quads BT.
b.Senator Biron Dorgan.
Dengan cukup besarnya kebutuhan impor gas alam ke AS, maka dimanfaatkan juga shale
gas untuk memenuhi kebutuhan energi AS, namun GHG (green house gases) yang dihasilkan
dari shale gas lebih besar daripada batubara. Diperlukan pengembangan CCT untuk masih
diguakan batubata guna memenuhi kebutuhan energi AS sebesar 21% (2008-1035). Pada
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jangka panjang diperlukan upaya pengembangan energi terbarukan dengan harapan biaya
yang lebih murah. Sedangkan nuklir diharapkan sebagai cara pemecahan penting dalam
pemanfaatannya namun memerlukan pertimbangan ekonomi politik yang cermat
d. Gina McCarthy, Asisten Administratur, EPA.
Walaupun telah ada MATS (mercury and toxic standard), namun masih dirasakan
kurangnya pengawasan dalam pelaksanaannya. Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh adanya data 6.80017.000 orang menderita gangguan otak, 11.000 orangmendapat serangan jantung, 120.000
orang asthma, dan 850.000 orang tidak masuk kerja karena sakit. Setiap $ dikeluarkan
sebagai biaya untuk menekan masalah lingkungan hidup menghasilkan manfaat kesehatan
sebesar % 5-13 atau diperoleh manfaat sebesar $ 1,3 trilyun setiap dikeluarkan biaya
lingkungan sebesar $ 53 miliar.
B. Pokok-pokok isi pembahasan topik-topik teknis di dalam konperensi.
Konperensi membahas berbagai makalah yang berisi tentang polutan berupa padatan dan
gas disamping cairan yang membahayakan lingkungna hidup global, antara lain: Carbon dan
gas-gas produktanya, merkuri, trace metals, halogen,
Perubahan iklim dunia diakibatkan oleh adanya gas rumah kaca (greenhouse gases) yang
menghasilkan pemanasan global (global warming). Gas pembentuk rumah kaca utama adalah
Carbon dalam bentuk gas COx, disamping gas-gas yang lain misalnya NOx, SOx, CFC dan
gas-gas yang lain termasuk trace element dan uap merkuri yang amat berbahaya bagi
kesehatan manusia (Gambar 1).
Beberapa hal penting tentang polutan pengganggu kualitas lingkungan hidup dan sumber
atau industri penghasilnya serta aspek-aspek termasuk kebijakan terkait yang banyak dibahas
di dalam konperensi adalah:
a. Permasalahan dalam industri penghasil polutan.
Industri penghasil polutan lingkungan yang dibahas di dalam konperensi yang berkaitan
dengan carbon management adalah standar MACT pada kiln semen, boiler skala kecil dan
besar, jasa kelistrikan yang memerlukan pengurangan dan pemonitoran merkuri, logam
runutan (trace metals), dan halogen yang dalam pembakaran menghailkan gas buang. Pilihan
teknologi pengontrol meliputi coal cleaning, scrubber, dan teknologi novel (baru). Cara
Pengukuran dengan cara basah dan kering, continuous emission monitors (CEMs) serta cara-
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cara baru yang sedang berkembang dibahas. Di dalam konperensi ini paling banyak dibahas
tentang masalah Carbon dan gas-gas yang dihasilkannya.
- Carbon management strategies.
Dibahas tentang unsur-unsur kunci di dalam proyek CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage),
hambatan-hambatan dalam carbon market, dorongan kebutuhan dalam penyimpanan CO2 di
bidang CO2 EOR abad ini.
- Carbon based policy and regulations.
Tentang implikasi penggunaan shale gas di dalam power plant.
- Penyimpanan/penangkapan dan pemisahan CO2 dalam skala kecil dan skala besar.
Tentang teknologi CCS masa mendatang, pemisahan CO2 dalam gasifikasi batubara,
pengembangan GMOD (Greenhouse gas mitigation options database), penangkapan CO2
dalam PLTU batubara.
- Proyek demonstrasi penangkapan CO2.
PCOR (the plains CO2 reduction) proyek demonstrasi skala besar di Amerika Utara
Bagian Tengah, GETICA CCS proyek demonstrasi terintegrasi di Rumania.
- Modeling untuk CCS – kapasitas penyimpanan CO2.
Metodologi pengembangan penyimpanan geologis potensial untuk CO2 di dalam
reservoir minyak dan gas bumi, pembentukan garam dan lapisan batubara yang tidak
tertambang,
- Kontrol NOx, SOx dan bahan-bahan polutant.
CFB scrubber di power plant Basin Electric’s Dry Fork, demonstrai teknologi kendali
multipollutant skala pilot plant, demonstrasi proses pemisah logam berat dan nutrients dari
FGD air buangan, optimasi penangkapan SO3 dengan contour mapping dan imbangan injeksi
reagen secara dinamis.
- Larutan kontrol emisi di dalam idustri.
Kontrol merkuri di pabrik semen, control merkuri dip roses taconite Minnesota, uji emisi
pollutant udara di kilang minyak AS.
Upaya-upaya penelitian untuk mengatasi adanya mercury (Hg) yang dihasilkan oleh
industri, proses gasifikasi batubara, dan pusat pembangkitan tenaga listrik dengan bahan
bakar energi fosil, antara lain adalah dengan penggunaan meta kaolinite dan senyawa
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calcium, senyawa carbon polymer, dry sorbent injection (DSI), NH4Cl dan HCl, yang
mampu menurunkan kadar Hg dalam off-stack gases sampai 70-95%.,
- Kebijakan merkuri dan isu kesehatan.
Standar merkuri dan racun-racun di dalam udara, pengaturan emisi merkuri dari power
plant, perspektip AS dan negosiasi merkuri PBB, tantangan dalam legislasi merkuri
internasional, regulasi tentang merkuri dan racun-racun yang lain di dalam udara, regulasi
tentang emisi,
- Bahan pollutant dan merkuri: emisi, transport dan pengendapan.
Emisi multimedia dari selenium modeling tentang SO2, NO2 dan PM25 (NAAQS),
ketidakpastian emisi carbon hitam dan coklat terhadap iklim, pollutant organik di dalam
udara dan pengaruhnya terhadap kesehatan, dampak kualitas udara dari minyak dan gas alam
di Allegheny National Forest.
- Pengukuran pollutant berbahaya di dalam udara.
Kemajuan teknologi dalam merkuri CEM, pengembangan metode trap sampling suatu
multielements sorbent, SO3 CEMs di dalam power plant, metode uji baru EPA untuk bahan
partikel, pengukuran pembentukan SO3 di PLTU batubara.
- Dasar-dasar reaksi merkuri dan teknologi control baru yang lain.
Dry sorbent injection (DSI) untuk kontrol HCl, dampak pada tranportasi dan penagkapan
Selenium uap, spesiasi dan emisi merkuri, pengukuran dan kontrol merkuri di dalam
gasifikasi batubara, kontrol merkuri di dalam PLTU batubara.
- Kontrol merkuri dan injeksi sorbent.
Sistem injeksi carbon teraktivasi persiapan untuk MACT industri, demonstrasi
pengurangan biaya manajemen emisi merkuri, proses aktivasi sorbent untuk control merkuri
dalam batubara bituminous, analisis data selenium,
- Kontrol merkuri dan sistem scrub/multipollutant.
MACT terpadu di dalam perencanaan, manajemen selenium di dalam sistem FGD basah,
optimasi manfaat ganda pengilangan merkuri di dalam unit PLTU.
b. Tantangan
Pengembangan dan penerapan teknologi energi yang baru merupakan tantangan dalam
kejelasan di bidang pengaturannya. Kondisi finansial dewasa ini menghadapi ketidakpastian
tersebut yang mempengaruhi kelangsungan proyek-proyek terkait.
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2.3. Kepentingan Global.
Secara kronologis, PBB dan berbagai lembaga inyternasional seperti IPCC, Gleneagles
dan MEF (Major Economies Forum Energy and Climate Change) telah beraksi
mengingatkan dunia akan adanya perubahan iklim dan pemanasan global yang apabila tidak
diantisipasi secara cepat dan tepat akan mengakibatkan kefatalan secara katastropis bagi
kehidupan manusia. Diperingatkan tentang penanganan sistematis, terencana dan terarah
terhadap sektor-sektor utama penyebab perubahan iklim tersebut misalnya hutan,
penggunaan lahan, gambut, manufaktur, transportasi dan rumha tangga dalam pemanfatan
lahan dan penggunaan energi khususnya bahan bakar fosil.
UNFCCC pada tahun 2004 telah mengingatkan bahwa dunia perlu mematuhi kewajiban
umum dan mengingatkan bahwa perubahan iklim ini disebabkan terutama oleh ulah manusia
sendiri. Apalagi pertumbuhan junlah manusia mengikuti tren secara eksponensial, akan
diikuti timbulnya permasalahan pembangunan termasuk permasalahan lingkungan hidup
akan tumbuh secara eksponensial pula, misalnya pertumbuhan emisi CO2.
Club of Rome pada tahun 1972 dalam bukunya “The Limits to Growth” telah mengingatkan
dunia bahwa oleh akibat pertumbuhan jumlah manusia yang eksponensial, maka
kebutuhannya akan lahan produktif juga tumbuh secara eksponensial pula.
Secara kronologis, PBB dan berbagai lembaga internasional seperti IPCC, Gleneagles dan
MEF (Major Economies Forum Energy and Climate Change) telak beraksi mengingatkan
dunia akan adanya perubahan iklim dan pemanasan global yang apabila tidak diantisipasi
secara cepat dan tepat akan mengakibatkan kefatalan secara katastropis bagi kehidupan
manusia. Diperingatkan tentang penanganan sistematis, terencana dan terarah terhadap
sektor-sektor utama penyebab perubahan iklim tersebut misalnya hutan, penggunaan lahan,
gambut, manufaktur, transportasi dan rumha tangga dalam pemanfatan lahan dan penggunaan
energi khususnya bahan bakar fosil.
UNFCCC pada tahun 2004 telah mengingatkan bahwa dunia perlu mematuhi kewajiban
umum dan mengingatkan bahwa perubahan iklim ini disebabkan terutama oleh ulah manusia
sendiri. Apalagi pertumbuhan jumlah manusia mengikuti tren secara eksponensial, akan
diikuti timbulnya permasalahan pembangunan termasuk permasalahan lingkungan hidup
akan tumbuh secara eksponensial pula, misalnya pertumbuhan emisi CO2.
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CO2 merupakan komponen gas utama dalam Gas Rumah Kaca (GRK / GHG) yang
menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan iklim (climate change) oleh akibat adanya pemanasan
global (global warming). Negara maju dan berkembang membuat kebijakan dan program
penurunan emisi CO2, yang berdampak terhadap kegiatan industri dan investasi.
UNFCCC 1992 menyatakan bahwa Perubahan Iklim disebabkan oleh kegiatan manusia.
Pada tahun 2004 UN-COP tentang PI menyatakan sepakat dipatuhinya sejumlah kewajiban
umtum mengenai formulasi, publikasi, pembaharuan langkah program nasional dalam
Mitigasi PI, pelepasan GRK,dan tentang fasilitasi Adaptasi PI). UNFCCC COP-13 tahun
2007 di Bali menghasilkan Bali Action Plan dan Bali Road Map yang intinya menyatakan
bahwa kita harus berusaha melakukan mitigasi GRK untuk mencegah pemanasan global.
Di luar UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on CC) ada Gleneagles dan MEF (Major
Economies Forum Energy and Climate Change) juga berupaya untuk menjaga agar kenaikan
temperatur rata-rata dunia tidak melebihi 2o C atau mempertahankan konsentrasi CO2
sebanyak 450 ppm di atmosfir. Diharapkan konsentrasi CO2 akan mencapai tidak melebihi
650 ppm pada tahun 2030.
IPCC tahun 2007 menyatakan bahwa PI merupakan perubahan keadaan cuaca yang
dapat diidentifikasi dalam perubahan rata-rata, keragaman sifatnya dalam periode panjang.
Pada dasanya lebih spesifik UNFCCC – COP 13 Bali 2007 menghasilkan tentang:
> RAB (Rencana Aksi Bali) mengupayakan dalam peningkatan inisiatif penyediaan
sumber keuangan dan investasi untuk mendukung dalam Mitigasi, Adaptasi dan
Teknologi.
> RAB sebagai dasar negosiasi di UNFCCC COP-14 Poznan Polandia 2008 dan COP15 Kopenhagen.
Pada tahun 2007 COP-13 memulai diskusi yang berkelanjutan ke arah pendekatan
pembangunan dengan karbon rendah. Selanjutnya pada tahun 2008 COP-14 dinatakan
sebagai awal negosiasi intensif tanggapan internasional yang intensif dan ambisius terhadap
PI agar disetujui di COP-15, bahwa:
> PI adalah masalah pembangunan;
> Pembangunan merupakan upaya berinvestasi pada energi yang lebih bersih; ke energi
yang dapat diperbaharui, dan pengelolaan hutan dan lahan pertanian secara bijaksana.
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> Negara berkembang memerlukan aliran dana bantuan (hibah atau pinjaman lunak) dan
tambahan untuk pembangunan, di samping untuk PI.
PI mempengaruhi pendekatan pengelolaan ekonomi makro, pilihan kebijakan fiskal,
alternatif peningkatan pendapatan, pasar asuransi dan opsi-opsi jangka panjang.
UNFCCC COP-14 Poznan Polandia 2008 mempersiapkan tanggapan internasional untuk
mencapai kesepakatan di Kopenhagen 2009. Banyak disadari bahwa krisis finansial global
mempersulit pendanaan untuk MA. PI merupakan isu poleksos, bukan hanya isu lingkungan.
Para pihak mendesak pengembangan pasar karbon global, dengan MDB memperluas
pelaksanaan pendanaan pemerintah negara maju dan membantu meningkatkan kapasitas dan
kesiapan pasar di negara berkembang untuk mengakses pasar karbon global.
G20 di Pitsburgh dan Skotlandia 2009: penjajagan dan peningkatan peran kebijakan
fiskal dan finansial dalam rangka mengatasi PI menjadi target utama.
Selanjutnya UNFCC – COP 15 Copenhagen 2009 menghasilkan Copenhagen Accord.
Pada kesempatan itu Preisden RI SBY menyatakan keinginannya tentang beberapa hal
antara lain:
> Membatasi peningkatan pemanasan global kisaran 2o C.
> Negara maju harus memimpin.
> “Penguncuran pendanaan cepat”.
> Komitmen pembangunan rendah karbon. Indonesia bertarget penurunan emisi 26%.
> Pendanaan dari negara maju dialirkan dengan baik.
Mempertahankan pohon berdiri daripada menabangnya. REDD plus menjadi bagian dari
solusi global.
UNFCCC 2009 di Copenhagen telah menyetujui Copenhagen Accord. yang diharapkan
dapat segera operasional, dengan pokok-pokok sebagai berikut:
> Secara politis perlu memerangi perubahan iklim (PI), menyetabilkan konsentrasi GRK
dalam atmosfir sehingga peningkatan dalam temperatur global ada di bawah 2 derajat
Celcius.
> Khususnya untuk negara berkembang (NB) bahwa strategi pembangunan emisi rendah
adalah tidak semata-mata dan sejauh tidak menghambat pembangunan berkelanjutan.
> Memperkuat kerjasama internasional dalam mempermudah dan mendukung dalam aksi
adaptasi.
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> Memperkuat pengurangan emisi yang diawali oleh Kyoto Protocol, dan pendanaan oleh
negara maju akan menjamin sasaran dan keuangan secara tepat, kuat dan transparan.
> Akan melaksanakan aksi mitigasi dengan support teknologi pendanaan dan
pemngembangan kapasitas secara relevan.
>
Peranan pengurangan emisi dari deforestasi dan degradasi hutan yang muskil
memerlukan jaminan insentif positif dengn melaksanakan mekanisme REDD-plus untuk
mempermudah mobilisasi sumberdaya pendanaan dari negara maju.
> Memperkuat cost-effectiveness dan menggelar aksi mitigasi, khususnya bagi negara
berkembang.
> Meningkatkan pendanaan yang memadai bagi negara berkembang dalam aksi mitigasi
dalam mengurangi emisi dari REDD-plus, adaptasi, pengembangan dan alih teknologi
serta pengembangan kapasitas. Komitmen kolektif negara maju menjamin sumberdaya
baru sebesar $30 miliar dalam tahun 2010. 2012 dengan alokasi berimbang dalam
mitigasi dan adaptasi. Dan komitmen negara maju secara bersama-sama dapat
memobilisasi dala sebesar $100 miliar setahun sebelum tahun 2020 untuk memenuhi
kebutuhan negara berkembang.
> COP mempelajari tentang kontribusi potensi sumber-sumber dana.
> Copenhagen Green Climate Fund mendukung proyek-2, program, kebijakan dan kegiatan
lain di negara berkembang dalam hal untuk mitigasi termasuk REDD-plus, adapatasi,
pengembangan kapasitas, pengembangan dan alih teknologi.
> Untuk memperkuat pengembangan dan alih teknologi ditentukan untuk pengukuhan
suatu Mekanisme Teknolgi untuk percepatannya.
> Pelaksanaan Accord ini selesai sebelum 2015.
UNFCCC COP-16 2010 di Cancun Mexico, dari pandangan Indonesia merupakan
capaian yang signifikan sejak COP13 di Bali, 2007. Bukan merupakan hasil akhir,
melainkan merupakan capaian antara yang masih harus banyak ditindak lanjuti, terutama
pada COP mendatang. Belum memenuhi harapan semua pihak, tetapi merupakan
kompromi maksimal yang dapat dihasilkan. Sekurang-kurangnya telah merefleksikan
keseimbangan politik, dengan capaian antara lain:
> Mitigasi berdasarkan LCA terhadap mitigasi berdasarkan KP.
> Semua aspek mitigasi berdasarkan paragraf 1.b dari BAP.
11
> Komitmen negara maju untuk membantu negara berkembang dalam segi
keuangan,
teknologi dan capacity building.
> Ditekankan secara baik tentang posisi penting dari negara berkembang dalam adaptasi.
Khusus tentang REDD+, kesepakatan yang diperoleh mencerminkan kepentingan
Indonesia sebagai negara yang mempunyai hutan tropis yang luas.
2.4. Kepentingan Indonesia.
1). Beberapa milestone internasional yang berkaitan dengan PI:
Beberapa catatan dari perkembangan internasional yang menjadi catatan dan aksi pihak
Indonesia antara lain adalah bahwa:
> Pemerintah Indonesia telah membentuk Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim sebagai titik
pusat penanganan PI dan koordinasi antarlembaga di Indonesia.
> COP-15 Copenhagen belum sepenuhnya memberikan hasil seperti yang diharapkan
dalam Bali Action Plan:
–
Mitigasi CO2 yang lebih ambisius terutama bagi negara maju.
–
Pelaksanaan Technology Transfer dan Climate Fund yang masih terkendala.
–
AS masih belum ikut ke dalam Kyoto Protocol.
–
Masih terpecah kepentingan negara-negara berkembang dalam penjabaran
CBDR (Common But Deliberated Responsibility) – China bertahan sebagai
negara berkembang.
> Copenhagen Accord baru sebatas wacana, belum menjadi kesepakatan yang mengikat.
> Isu baru: perlu transparansi tentang emisi CO2, implementasi MRV (Monitoring
Reporting and Verification) dan NAMAS (National Appropriate Mitigation Actions).
> COP-16 Cancun merupakan capaian yang signifikan dalam perjalanan sejak COP-13
Bali, 2007.
> Pidato Presiden RI pada G20 di Pittsburgh menyampaikan bahwa Indonesia bisa
menurunkan emisi 26% dan bisa lebih (41%) dengan bantuan negara maju hingga tahun
2050 – dengan sebutan the climate change hero!
Di samping itu diperoleh beberapa pandangan tingkat makro antara lain bahwa:
> PI sebagai tantangan ekonomi, pembangunan dan investasi.
> Perubahan Iklim sebagai Isu Pembangunan.
12
> Negara berkembang memerlukan biaya bidang kesehatan, pendidikan, infrastruktur,
pengentasan kemiskinan dengan tambahan pengembangan pendanaan PI.
Kemkeu RI sebagai lembaga sentral dalam pendana pembangunan di Indonesia, berperan
dalam:
> Mengelola iklim investasi, KF, pembelanjaan langsung, risiko dan pasar uang.
> Mengundang/mempengaruhi investasi domestik dan asing berdasarkan prioritas
M(itigasi) dan A(daptasi) PI.
> Kuasa anggaran dan mempengaruhi pasar finansial dan asuransi sebagai sumber
penting pembangunan dan pendanaan iklim yad.
> Instrumen kebijakan ekonomi untuk mitigasi dan adaptasi.
> Kelompok Kerja Depkeu mengadakan studi tentang metode dan pilihan optimasi
kebijakan fiskal untuk Mitigasi dan Adaptasi PI dalam perekonomian Indonesia.
Green Paper yang disusun oleh Pemerintah Indonesia dan Australia sebagai masukan
guna kepentingan Penyusunan Kebijakan Ekonomi Insonesia dengan nuansa Prubahan Iklim
memuat perihal penting sebagai berikut, antara lain : Peranan Indonesia dalam Mitigasi
Perubahan Iklim Global; Green Paper: Menuju Kebijakan Iklim bernuansa Ekonomi;
Singkat Tentang Strategi yang menempatkan Indonesia untuk masa depan dengan hambatan
Carbon berarti merestrukturisasi awal menuju struktur ekonomi dengan emisi rendah serta
strategi dalam sektor energi, sektor perubahan tataguna tanah dan kehutanan, pendanaan
internasioal
untuk
Carbon, dan
pengembangan
kelembagaan;
Emisi
dan tujuan
pengurangannya (Emisi dari peerubahan tataguna lahan, hutan dan gambut mendominasi
profil emisi Indonesia saat ini, tetapi energi akan meningkat pesat dalam beberapa dasawarsa
mendatang. Suatu upaya kebijakan terpadu lintas semua sektor diperlukan untuk keluaran
yang efisien, daripada sekedar perencanaan untuk pengurangan khsus di tiap sektor);
Pendanaan Carbon internasional; Penilaian harga energi dan Carbon; Aksi regional terhadap
emisi perubahan tataguna lahan, hutan dan gambut; serta Reformasi kelembagaan.
Koordinasi kebijakan yang berhasilguna merupakan kunci ke arah keberhasilan
kebijakan iklim.
2). Emisi GRK (CO2)
13
Sektor-sektor penghasil CO2 yang perlu ditangani: Peat sector, Forestry sector,
Agriculture sector, Power sector, Transportation sector, Cement sector, Buildings sector,
dengan catatan bahwa:
•
Sektor penggunaan lahan dan kehutanan masih penghasil emisi terbesar – mulai di
akui oleh Indonesia.
•
Berbagai fihak melakukan perhitungan dengan pendekatan berbeda.
•
Emisi dari penggunaan energi (fosil) masih relatif kecil – namun meningkat pesat
minimal 5x dari tahun 2005 – 2020..
Beberapa temuan yang dapat diutarakan adalah bahwa
* Emisi GRK tahunan di Indonesia berjumlah 2,23 Gigaton (2,23 Miliar Ton) pada tahun
2005. SEmentara pembangunan di Indonesia berlanjut terus, emisi total GRK
diperkirakan meningkat menjadi 3,6 Gt sebelum 2030. Pada tahun 2005 dan 2030
emisi Indonesia berkisar 5% dari GRK global. Kontribusi emisi global Indonesia
lebih tinggi daripada kontribusinya dalam PDB riel global sekitar 0,6% pada tahun
2005.
•
Analisis benefit-cost dari berbagaiupaya penurunan emisi GRK menganjurkan bahwa
sebelum 2030 Indonesia mempunyai potensi untuk mengurangi emisi GRK sebesar
2,3 Gt, yang menunjukkan suatu reduksi sekitar 65% apabila dibandingkan dengan
tren sekarang. Hal ini akan membawa emisi tahun 2030 65% lebih rendah daripada
emisi tahun 2005. Reduksi sebesar itu merupakan kontribusi yang penting terhadap
upaya global, yang berjumlah sekitar 7% dari reduksi global yang diperlukan sebelum
2030 untuk mencapai tingkat yang direkomendasikan Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC). IPCC adalah sebuah badan ilmiah antar pemerintah yang
didirikan tahun 1988 di bawah naungan PBB dan ditugaskan untuk mengevaluasi
risiko dari perubahan iklim yang diakibatkan oleh kegiatan manusia. Dinyatakan
bahwa konsentrasi GRK global akan mencapai 650 ppm sebelum 2030 mengikuti tren
waktu sekarang. Hal ini jauh melampaui tingat 450 ppm – suatu tingkat di mana para
ilmiahwan berkeyakinan bahwa kita dapat mncegah perubahan iklim yang penuh
katastropis itu dengan kenaikan temperatur global tidak melebihi 2 derajat Celcius.
Menurut Project Catalyst, untuk membatasi konsentrasi GRK pada tingkat yang lebih
14
aman ini, emisi GRK harus dipangkas paling sedikit 35 GtCO2e pada tahun 2030
dibandingkan dengan tren sekarang.
•
Lebih jauh, biaya rata-rata pengurangan emisi potensial Indonesia relatif rendah
dibandingkan dengan beberapa opsi penurunan yang ada di negara-negara maju.
Opportunity cost dan biaya teknologi penurunan yang ada menunjukkan bahwa
Indonesia memperkirakan biaya rata-rata sekitar 3EUR/ton CO2e sebelum 2030.
Opsi-opsi Pembangunan Rendah Karbon untuk Indonesia dalam hal ini peluang dan
Kebijakan Pengurangan Emisi Sektor Manufaktur (SM):
>> Sektor manufaktur sebagai salah satu sumber terbesar emisi GRK yang berasal dari
bahan
bakar fosil di Indonesia. Menyumbang lebih dari 40% emisi gas dari bahan
bakar fosil pada tahun 2005 (termasuk pembangkitan listrik untuk sektor
manufaktur). Meningkat 6% setahun.
>> Mengkaji opsi pembangunan rendah karbon tanpa mengorbankan tujuan pembangunan.
Pendekatan praktis dan terpadu dalam mengelola emisi Sektor Manufaktur khususnya
beberapa sektor utama, perlu diupayakan pengurangan emisi yang hemat biaya. Dasar
pendekatan dilakukan secara penapisan bertingkat (multi-tiered screening approach)
dihasilkan bahwa:
> 4 sektor ekonomi utama penyumbang emisi terbesar GRK: bahan galian bukan logam;
tekstil; logam dasar, makanan dan minuman; termasuk garmen, pulp, porselen, suku cadang
kendaraan, pupuk, dan karet remah. Subsektor tsb penting dalam nilai tambah: tekstil,
garmen, alat transportasi, makanan dan minuman; angka pertumbuhan tahunan: suku
cadang kendaraan, bahan galian bukan logam; efek ganda ekonomi: makanan dan minuman
dan tekstil.
> Meningkatkan efisiensi energi hemat biaya dengan potensi yang sama: semen, logam,
tesktil, garmen, makanan dan minuman.
> Prioritas tinggi: Semen, bahan bangunan porselen, pupuk buatan tunggal, pertenunan,
serat tekstil, tekstil jadi, karet remah.
> Prioritas menengah: penggilingan baja, industri besi & baja dasar, pulp, pemintalan,
komponen bermotor, suku cadang, kertas budaya, ban luar dan ban dalam, minyak sayur
dan kelapa sawit mentah, bahan kimia dasar.
15
> Rincian: 20 industri penghasil GRK terbesar; 8 kelompok industri sebgai prioritas tinggi
dengan > 7 metrik; 9 kelompok lainnya sebagai prioritas menengah.dengan 4,5 metrik.
> Tindakan yang tepat dengan 3 kategori: Manajemen energi dan pelaksanaan efisiensi;
Investasi teknologi yang spesifik; Standar efisiensi.
> Yang perlu ditindaklanjuti meliputi: Industri besar yang padat modal dengan jumlah
sedikit dan kelompok industri yang terdiri dari sejumlah besar usaha kecil dan menengah.
Intervensi: audit energi dan standar efisiensi
> Opsi kebijakan fiskal: insentif tambahan misalnya aturan-aturan tentang depresiasi.
Kebijakan energi dan perubahan iklim Indonesia dalam rangka ketahanan energi melalui
konservasi dan diversifikasi ditempuh melalui upaya efisiensi, fuel switching, energi
terbarukan, dan penggunaan teknologi energi bersih.
3. Penutup.
3.1 Kesimpulan.
a. Polutan yang banyak dibahas di dalam konperensi serta upaya-upaya untuk mengatasinya
adalah terutama CO2 dan merkuri, di samping polutan yang lain misalnya SOx, NOx,
selenium, trace metals. CO2 merupakan gas beracun penyusun utama pada gas rumah kaca
(GHG). Merkuri baik dalam bentuk logam maupun terutama dalam bentuk uap merupakan
unsur berbahaya bagi kesehatan manusia yang memperoleh pembahasan luas di dalam
konperensi ini.
b. Berbagai temuan teknologi yang baru di dalam upaya penangkapan dan penyimpanan CO2
(CCS) dalam skala besar sedang terus diupayakan baik di dalam lapisan geologi minyak dan
gas bumi alam maupun di dalam lapisan batubara yang tak tertambang.
3.2 Rekomendasi.
a. Di dalam konperensi ini masalah merkuri di dalam lingkungan hidup mendapat perhatian
khusus setelah COx. Di dalam pengamatan lingkungan hidup di bidang industri kelistrikan
dan industri lain yang menggunakan boiler yang menggunakan bahan bakar fosil di Indonesia
sementara ini masalah merkuri belum mendapat perhatian secara khusus, sehingga ke depan
industri-industri tersebut perlu mulai mendapat perhatian di dalam pengukuran, pemantauan
dan penaggulangan merkuri tersebut. Konperensi juga membahas polutan yang lain misalnya
16
SOx, NOx, logam runutan, logam berat, polutan organic, padatan berupa partikel (halus) dan
lain-lain.
b. Dalam perjalanan waktu, maka korelasi antara daya dukung alam dan tekanan penduduk
akan berbalikan. Pada awalnya daya dukung alam adalah lebih tinggi daripada tekanan
penduduk. Pada periode selanjutnya, oleh makin kuatnya tekanan penduduk, maka daya
dukung alam menurun dan tekanan penduduk makin kuat dan akan menjulang lebih tinggi.
Di dalam upaya global perlu diupayakan agar ke depan daya dukung alam ini harus lebih
tinggi daripada tekanan penduduk, agar tujuan berbagai kebijakan tentang lingkungan hidup
tercapai yaitu manusia hidup dalam kondisi lingkungan hidup yang baik dan sehat (Gambar
2).
PP
PP2
&
PP1
Q
Q3
PP3
Q2
Awal
PP = tekanan penduduk
lingkungan
Upaya keseimbangan
Q1
Waktu
Tujuan
Q = daya dukung
Gambar 2. Grafik Dinamis antara Tekanan Penduduk vs. Daya Dukung Lingkugan
c. Upaya global dan khususnya di Indonesia perlu diimplementasikan melalui programprogram aksi bersama yang telah diikrarkan, agar cita-cita tersebut tercapai.
d. Pemeritah RI telah mengerahkan segenap upayanya dengan dibentuknya Dewan Nasional
Perubahan Iklim, khususnya Kementerian
Keuangan beserta kementerian dan lembaga
terkait dalam mengantisipasi permasalahan PI tersebut dalam kaitannya dengan
pembangunan ekonomi, juga telah bekerjasama dengan pemerintah dan lembaga di LN serta
Perguruan Tinggi di dalam negeri antara lain UNDIP di bidang kelembagaan dan fiskal. Hal
17
tersebut perlu diperluas dengan berbagai Penguruan Tinggi lainnya misalnya UNISBA dalam
pembinaan Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan yang moderen dengan akses Pusat Studi Lingkungan
di LN a.l. EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), EER (Energy and Environmental
Research Center) di North Dakota beserta lembaga pendananya misalnya USAID, agar di
samping penanganan PI tersebut terasa menasional juga lebih terintegrasi dalam pemikiran
solusinya secara global.
e. Konperensi semacam ini perlu dimonitor secara berkelanjutan sebagai bahan masukan bagi
SNI yang berkaitan dengan bidang lingkungan hidup di Indonesia.
Lampiran A: Program dan jadual International Conference on Air Quality 8,
Arlington, VA, USA, 24-27 Oktober 2011.
Minggu, 23 Oktober 2011 : Preconference Workshops
- Carbon Management.
- Measurement and Control of Mercury, Trace Metals, and Halogens.
Senin, 24 Oktober 2011.
- Introduction and Welcome : Gerald Groenwold, Director, EERC, Grand Forks,
North Dakota.
- Keynote Presentation: The Honorable Kent Conrad, U.S. Senator, Washington,
D.C.
- Keynote Presentation, Assitant Administrator, EPA, Washington, D.C.
- Pannel Discussion: New Energy technologies – development and Implementation
Challenges.
- Lunch Keynote Presentation: The Honorable Jogn Hoeven, U.S. senator,
Washington, D.C.
- Session A1: Carbon Management strategies.
Session B1: Hg Policy, Regulations, and Health Issues.
- Session A2: Carbon-Based Policy and Regulations
Session B1: Continued.
Selasa, 25 Oktober 2011.
- Session A3: CO2 Capture and Separation I (small-scale and other considerations).
- Session B2: PM and Hg: Emissions, Specitation, Transport, and Deposition.
- Session A4: CO2 Capture and Separation II (largerscale and oxycombustion).
- Session B3: Harzardous Air Pollutant Measurements.
- Exhibit Social and Poster Session.
Rabu, 26 Oktober 2011.
- Session A5: Fully Integrated CCS demonstration Projects.
- Session B4: Hg Reaction Fundamentals and Other Novel Control technologies.
- Session A6 : Modeling for CCS-CO2 Stirage Capacity.
- Session B4: Continued.
- Session A7: Sox, NOx, and PM Control.
- Session B5: Hg Control – Sorbent Injection.
18
Kamis, 27 Oktober 2011.
- Session A8: Emission Control Solutions for Industrial Application.
- Session B6: Hg Control – Scrub/Multipollutant Systems.
Conference Adjourns.
Lampiran B: Makalah pelapor
WASTE GASES AND PARTICULATES RESULTED FROM BRIQUETTE
COMBUSTION
Dr. Retno Damayanti, MCTRDC*)
Retnod@tekmira.esdm.go.id
Dr. Ukar W. Soelistijo**)
Email: ukar@tekmira.esdm.go.id;ukarws@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
One of many coal utilization as fuel is usage of coal briquette that is expected to be able to meet household
and small industry demand for fuel. The negative impact caused by utilizing briquette is air pollution due to the
emission of gas removal resulted from its burning in the forms of fly ashes as small particles and toxic gases.
Research on gases removal from burning of coal briquette has been carried out, in particular gases of COx,
NOx, and SOx. The samples used are of Palimanan West Java (MCTRDC Pilot Plant Coal Center Laboratory)
waste wood briquette (BS), waste agriculture briquette (BB), and Tanjung Enim coal briquette (BT) and
Lampung coal briquette (BL), where charcoal (AK) is used as a standard of comparison. The research results
show that the disposal gas emission of the five types of fuel have similar pattern, i.e. within the first twenty
minutes at the temperature of 150-600 0C the gas emission are still below the EQS (300 mg/m3). The effort of
controlling of air pollution could be carried out towards preserving the environmental quality through, among
others, planting several types of plants that could be able to absorb the polluter gases, and the efforts of REDD
that should be necessarily encouraged as far as possible.
Keywords: biomass and coal briquettes, combustion, pollutant emissions, mitigation.
*) Senior Researcher of MCTRDC. MCTRDC is the Mineral and Coal Technology Research and Development
Center, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia.
**) Bandung Islamic University, Indonesia; The retired Senior Researcher of MCTRDC.
This paper is submitted to Air Quality VIII, An International Conference on Carbon Management, Mercury,
Trace Substances, SOx, NOx, and Particulate Matter, October 24-27, 2011, Arlington, VA, USA.
I.INTRODUCTION
I.1 Background
Since the energy crisis happened in 1970s and the ever declining of Indonesia oil reserves, then the
government has launched the national energy policy !). The national energy policy contains three important
issues, i.e.:
- Intensification is aimed to increase the activity of survey and exploration in te framework of recognizing more
viable potential of energy resources.
- Diversification with the aim of reducing domestic oil utilization and increasing diversification of energy
alternative utilization other than oil.
- Conservation is aimed to utilize more efficient of conserving energy resources.
The present Indonesia coal reserves are of about 21 billion tonnes out of 101 billion tonnes of coal
resources spread over Indonesia islands, mainly in Sumatera, Kalimantan and view in Sulawesi, Java, and
Papua (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2009). The main consumers of coal are power plant and
cement industry. Small amount of coal is used in tin smelting, ferronickel, view of small industry such as brick
and tile, lime, earthenware, blacksmith etc. The limited reserves of oil and gas, then the other fossil fuels such
as coal would be developed as fuel in the industry including small industry, besides also developing the
available alternative energy sources such as geothermal. One of several coal utilizations as fuel is of coal
briquette to meet the demand of households and small industry. Even though, utilization of coal briquette has
19
defect of releasing pollution due to gas emission resulted from burning briquette in the forms of particulate
(dust) and toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), carbon oxide (COx) and other
organic compounds. 4) If the concentration of gases and particulates exceeds the limit threshold, it could disturb
the worker’s health and the surroundings. While the excessive of gases such as SO2 and NOx could cause the
acid rain, and CO2 could affect green house effects and destroying ozone layer in the atmosphere and finally
decreasing the quality of the surrounding environment and disturbing the human’s life. 5)
Recognizing the level of polluting influence of several types of briquettes on the environment, this
investigation is carried out by using rice husk and wood waste briquette, sugar cane waste briquette, charcoal
compared with coal briquette which are used to feed in the small industry. The observed pollutant gases are
SO2, NOx, COx, NH3, HC, and dust (ashes) based on the Decree of the Indonesia Minister of Environment on
the Limit Threshold Value and on the Environment Quality Standard.
I.2. Problems
Utilization of briquette fuel affects quality of ambient atmosphere in lieu with its usage in the small
industry. Gases emission resulting from briquette combustion would be studied in this investigation mainly of
green house gases such as COx, SO2 and NOx and other hydro carbon gases in line with its safety of emission.
The samples would be taken from Tanjung Enim and Lampung coal briquette (The Bukit Asam State-owned
Coal Enterprise), charcoal, rice husk-wood waste briquette and sugar cane waste briquette.
I.3 Purpose and aim
The aim of investigation is to recognize the level of emission effect of briquette combustion in the small
industry sector on air, then the figure out of the pollution impact on air could be obtained. Moreover, since after
recognizing the level of emission then the effort of controlling of air pollution due to the briquette combustion
could be conducted so that preservation of the environmental quality is maintained.
Furthermore, basic data of the disposal gas emission from briquette burning could be supplied an input for
the small industry to manage its gas emission. Besides, this data could be utilized by the community in their
participation in environmental management and control.
II. THEORY
II.1 Combustion process
Mechanism of combustion process is so complex as long as the briquette fuel has complex chemical
composition and physical characteristics and it is burned under uncontrolled condition in the small industry.
Combustion process occurs while briquette reacts with oxygen in air and resulting heat and disposal gases and
particulates. Heat is utilized by the various industrial processes.
In the combustion process of briquette, the fuel is never directly burned and in a very short time the
combustion process occurs within three stage of reaction, i.e. 3):
a). Introductory combustion.
In this stage of reaction, cellulose compound and hemi cellulose of the fuel breaks and forming activated
cellulose compound, i.e. the compound that has smaller molecule weight.
b). Pyrolysis reaction.
In this reaction occurs degradation of heat of the activated cellulose to be volatile compound and
charcoal. The formation of this compound depends on reaction temperature. The volatile compound product
could constitutes as gases (CO2, CO, H-C,SO2 and H2), the condensed fraction (H2O and organic compound),
and tar fraction.
c). Reaction of combustion
At this stage, results of pyrolysis reaction, i.e. the volatile compound and charcoal, under enough
oxygen and high temperature, is completely burned and forming CO2 and heat (exothermic). This condition is
indicated by the blue color of flame. Under the condition of lack of oxygen and low temperature, then it is
indicated by the existence of smoke or emission as the product of pyrolysis reaction.
In general, based on the phase of formation, the pollutant of the briquette combustion could be divided
into two parts, i.e.,
a). Primary pollutant, is the pollutant in the air that has the same form or phase with when it is emitted
from its source. For example, SO2 is emitted from the metal refining plant; or COx, NOx, SO2 originated from
fossil fuels.
b). Secondary pollutant. This pollutant exists in the air as the result between two or more materials or
pollutant. The possible reaction is:
20
- Photochemical reaction: ozone as the result of reaction between hydrocarbon with NOx under the
influence of ultra violet from the sunlight.
- Catalytic oxidation: formation of gaseous oxides with metallic particulates in the air as catalyst.
Based on its form, the kinds of air pollutant could be divided into: particulates (dust, fume and smoke) and
gases (CO, SO2, NOx, and hydrocarbon).
Ash as solid waste of briquette combustion activity is generally disposed as usual. Its reutilization as one way
of environmental management is usually as soil fertilizer of plants of small industry. Considering that ash as
result of any combustion is categorized as dangerous and poisonous material, so that in this investigation
toxicity of the resulted ash is also conducted. The consideration is that there is an uneasiness of contamination
occurrence on the water body at the surrounding of the small industry area that uses briquette.
II.2 Impact of pollutant of briquette combustion
Air pollution caused by briquette combustion depends on the types of pollutant, concentration of pollutant,
the length of time the pollutant existing in air and endurance capacity of the living creature upon the pollutant
13
).
In general, the pollutant of air could lead direct impact, viz. upon worker besmirched by pollutant material
directly. The indirect impact is upon the community who lives at the surrounding of the industry that releases
the air pollutant per se. Several important characteristics of gas pollutant and its impact can be seen on Table
2.1.
Table 2.1
Gas as pollutant material
No.
GAS
Important characteristic
Pollution
1.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
- colorless
- des - - destroying plant
- not strong odor
- health interference
- high solubility in water forming sulfide
acid
2.
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
3.
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
- colorless
- as carrier in aerosol
- inert
4.
Nitrogen monoxide (NO)
- colorless
5.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
- occured on high temperatue and
pressuire
- oxidized into NO2
- the main component in the formation
of photochemistry fume
6.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
- colorless
- odorless
7.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- colorless
- solving in water and forming sulfate acid
- brown color up to orange
- very corrosive
- as the result of incomplete combustion
process
- affects on the global climate
- odorless
8.
Hydrocarbon (CnHn)
- depending on its type
- some are resulted by industry
III. IMPLEMENTATION (SEQUENCE) OF INVESTIGATION
III.1 Location and raw material
Location of disposal gas emission investigation is at the small industry and at Palimanan Coal Pilot Plant
MCTRDC, West Java, supported by the Environmental Laboratory of MCTRDC in Bandung. Sample of
briquette is consisted of coal briquette from Tanjung Enim (BT) and Lampung (BL) PT Bukit Asam (Stateowned Coal Company in South Sumatera), biomass briquette (rice husk and wood waste briquette (BS)) and
sugar cane waste briquette (BB), and also charcoal (AK) as comparative testing.
21
III.2 Methodology
Methodology may include data collection and analysis, laboratory analysis, data evaluation and report writing.
3.2.1 Data collection and analysis
The collected data may include the primary data obtained by direct observation on environmental
parameter/component at the field and sample collection the further analyzed at the laboratory. Secondary data is
collected from the coal briquette production plants and from the consumers at the location of investigation.
3.2.2 Procedure of investigation
a). Raw material study
Characteristics of raw materials is determined through chemical analysis at the MCTRDC laboratory that
may include proximate analysis (moisture, ash, volatile matters, and fixed carbon) and ultimate analysis (C, H,
N, O, S). Coal ashes analysis is carried out to determine the component of major elements (alkali oxides and
earth elements) and other metallic elements (Pb, Cu, Zn).
b). Determination of heat energy and efficiency of furnace
Determination of furnace efficiency is carried by using water boiling method. 3,7,10,14) The equipments may
include pair of scales, thermometer, stopwatch, thermocouple, furnace, and aluminum pan. The equipment is
then set up and testing is conducted in line with the procedure, heating within 60 minutes . Then calculating
maximum heat power and efficiency of the heat power (CO2, SO2 and NOx) at the several horizontal points of
farther location from the furnace in the testing room.
c). Determination of disposal gas emission
In this testing is conducted by using stack above the furnace. Testing is set up at the bottom of the stack or
50 cm above the furnace and above the stack or 200 cm above the furnace. Then CO2, SO2 and NOx are
determined with length of time variation.
d). Determination of toxicity of ashes resulted by burning of briquette
Ashes resulted by burning of all samples of briquette and charcoal then its toxicity is tested by using EPA
method 1311, Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure. 7,8).
This testing uses the weight of every sample of 5 grams of waste solid.
IV. RESULT OF INVESTIGATION AND DISCUSSION
IV.1 Characteristics of fuel
Chemical characteristics of fuels (briquettes and charcoal) used in this investigation is determined by
proximate analysis and ultimate analysis. The result is shown on Table 4.1.
It can be seen that the content of moisture is relatively low in the range of 5.46 -11.81%. The higher the
content of moisture the slower rate of combustion. Ash content of the samples used in this investigation ranges
between 1.43-22.34%. The lowest content of ash is in charcoal of 1-2%, while in rice husk and wood waste
briquette of about 20-25%. Volatile matters constitutes component of fuel if it is burned it would become vapor.
Volatile matters content is of 24.74 –76.72%, while fixed carbon if of 11.69-52.23%.
Table 4.1
Result of proximate and ultimate analysis of fuel
No.
Parameter
Unit
Fuel
AK
BB
BS
BT
BL
1.
Moisture
%
10.16
7.25
5.46
5.81
11.81
2.
Ash
%
1.43
18.36
22.34
17.22
11.25
3.
Volatile matters
(V.M.)
%
76.72
45.22
43.76
24.74
37.69
4.
Fixed carbon
%
11.69
29.17
28.44
52.23
39.25
5.
Carbon
%
78.84
48.27
50.40
59.35
57.49
6.
Hydrogen
%
3.42
4.70
4.79
3.81
5.69
7.
Nitrogen
%
0.38
0.70
0.92
0.85
0.87
8.
S total
%
0.58
1.07
0.80
0.50
0.30
9.
Oxygen
%
15.35
26.90
20.75
18.27
24.40
22
10.
Calorific value
Cal
6970
4516
4905
5411
5565
Legend: AK: Charcoal; BB: Sugar cane waste briquette; BS: Rice husk and wood waste briquette; BT: Tanjung
Enim coal briquette (super); BL: Lampung coal briquette; Calculation base on air dry basis (a.d.b.).
The result of ultimate analysis may include the important elements such as C, H, O, N, and S. The
elements of C, H, and O constitutes determinant parameter in the process of combustion. The content of those
elements is of 40.27-78.84%, 3.42-5.69% and 15.35-26.90% respectively. The elements of S and N are of 0.301.07% and of 0.38-0.92% respectively. C will form gas of CO2, H to be H2O, S becoming SO2 and N to be
NOx. Calorific value of the briquette samples is between 4.516 and 6.970 cal.
IV.2 Temperature of furnace and water
Temperature of furnace can be seen on Figure 4.1 and water on Figure 4.2 and shown as the average temperature
during the on-going experiment. The observed data shown that the average highest temperature of furnace with
using BB briquette reaches 550 0C, while using BL the average highest temperature only reaches 380 0C, and
the other three briquette fuels, i.e. BS, BT and AK, reach the average highest temperature reach around 250 0C.
In accordance with the average highest temperature of water in the furnace of using fuel BB increases faster
than using other types of fuels.
800
T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E
600
400
oC
200
0
0
5
BB
10
BS
AK
15
BL
20
25
BT
30
waktu (menit)
Tim e (m inute)
Figure 4.1
The average temperature of furnace using various of fuels
120
100
T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E
80
60
40
oC
20
0
0
10
AK
20
BB
30
BS
40
BT
50
BL
60
70
80
90
waktu
Time
(minute)(menit)
Figure 4.2
The average temperature of water during experiment using various of fuel
On Figure 4.2, it can also be seen that using the three types of fuels of BS, BT, and AK show the same
increase of water temperature.
IV.3 Heat energy and efficiency of furnace
23
Heat energy and efficiency of furnace, in this investigation, are determined under two conditions, i.e.,
maximum condition and minimum one. Maximum condition is where the in-take air into the furnace is
maximum, and minimum condition is vice versa. The energy received by water in the pan is used to increase
temperature and evaporation the water. Data of heat energy and efficiency of furnace obtained in this
investigation can be seen in Table 4.2 . Based on the result of experiment can be seen that P max and E max of
the materials ranges of 5,261 – 11,990 W(att) and of 6.89 – 11.30%. The highest value of 11,990 W is shown
by the sample of risk husk – wood waste briquette (BS) with the lowest efficiency of 6.89%. This result is
related to BS used as fuel with the average temperature of furnace of 250 0C, compared with using BB that
reaches 550 0C and BL at 380 0C. This is possibly due to the high content of ashes in BS (22.34%), where ashes
could restrain the process of combustion, so that the temperature and efficiency of furnace is low.
Table 4.2
Determination of furnace efficiency in the combustion of charcoal and briquette
No
Fuel
Pmax, W
Fmax, kg
Emax,%
Pmin, W
Fmin, kg
Emin, %
1.
Charcoal (AK)
7228
0.44
8.38
1664
0.15
37.24
2.
Sugar cane waste
briquette (BB)
7426
0.52
10.82
1165
0.37
49.60
3.
Rice husk and wood
waste briquette (BS)
11990
0.73
6.89
1104
0.20
50.84
4.
Tanjung Enim coal
briquette (super) (BT)
5261
0.42
10.66
1165
0.42
26.28
5.
Lampung coal
briquette (BL)
5531
0.41
11.30
1629
0.36
26.37
Legend: Pmax : maximum heat energy per weight unit of fuel in Watt;
Emax : furnace efficiency under
Pmax condition in %;
Fmaax : the required quantity of fuel under Pmax condition in kg; P min : minimum heat energy per
weight unit of fuel in Watt;
Emin: furnace efficiency under Pmin condition in %;
F min : the required quantity of fuel
under Pmin condition in kg.
Under the minimum condition, Pmin resulted by fuels of BB, BSD, and BT have the similar value of
about 1,100 W, while BL has Pmin similar with AK.
IV.4 Emission of waste gas
As has been previously explained that combustion of briquette produces disposal gases containing several
materials that could negatively affect either on the worker or the surrounding people. In this investigation,
monitoring on disposal gases on briquette and charcoal combustion is conducted at the the height of 50 cm and
200 cm of the stack above the furnace (as the optimum height where optimum emission is obtained). The
results are shown on Figures 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 for SO2, NOx and CO gas emissions respectively.
24
SO2, mg/m3
400
300
200
EQS (Emission Quality Standard)
100
0
0
20
AK
BB
40
BS
BT
60
80
100
120
Time (minute)
waktu,
BL
men
SO2, mg/m3
Figure 4.3a
EQS and emission of waste gas (SO2) of briquette combustion at the height of 50 am above furnace
500
400
300
EQS (Emission Quality Standard)
200
100
0
0
AK
20
BB
40
BS
60
BT
BL
80
100
Time (minute)
waktu,
120
menit
Figure 4.3b
EQS and emission of waste gas (SO2) of briquette combustion at the height of 200 am above furnace
On Figure 4.3 it is shown that combustion process using charcoal as fuel is undetectable of the existence of
SO2 either at the height of 50 cm or at 200 cm. Al over of the five types of briquette, in this experiment, release
SO2 gas at the initial combustion (0-20 minutes) at the temperature of furnace between 150-600 oC.
Furthermore, the content of SO2 fluctuates up to the minute of 65 th. This fluctuation is presumed due to
combustion process of briquette and charcoal occurring layer by layer. Beyond the minute of 70th all of the fuel
used in the combustion process does not indicate the content of O2, then the temperature tends to decline.
Monitoring at the height of 50 cm above the furnace, briquettes BB and BS exhibit SO2 gas emission
exceeding Emission Quality Standard (EQS), viz. 300 oC. While briquettes BT and BL still meets the EQS. It
is related to the high content of sulfur in briquettes BB and BS of 1.07% and 0.80%, while BT and BL contain
lower sulfur of 0.50% and 0.30% respectively. It is also due to lower temperature of furnace (150-250 oC)
compared with furnace temperature used in the combustion of BB and BL briquettes (300 – 600 oC). At the
height of 200 m above the furnace, BB and BS show SO2 gas emission exceeding EQS, i.e. 300 mg/m3, while
BT and BL briquettes indicate SO2 gas emission below EQS. Result of measuring emission of NOx gas at the
heights 50 cm and 200 cm above the furnace can be seen on Figures 4.4a and 4.4b, respectively.
Based on the observed data, it can be seen that the same with SO2 emission, NOx emission also exhibits the
25
NOx, mg/m3
same pattern within the first 20 minutes (at between 150 – 600 oC), with the highest concentration of NOx of
220 mg/m3 of BB and BS briquettes at the height of 50 cm above the furnace, and with concentration of 130
mg/m3 at te height of 220 cm above the furnace. These values are still below the EQS of 1000 mg/m3. While
NOx gas emission in the combustion using AK, BT, and BL fuels shows NOx content still below EQS vale,
either at the height of 50 cm or 200 cm above the furnace.
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
AK
BB
40
BS
60
BT
80
100
BL
120
waktu, men
Tim e (m inute)
Figure 4.4a
EQS and emission of waste gas (NOx) of briquette combustion at the height of 50 am above furnace
NOx, mg/m3
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
waktu,
menit
Tim e (m inute)
AK
BB
BS
BT
BL
Figure 4.4b
EQS and emission of waste gas (NOx) of briquette combustion at the height of 200 am above furnace
Emission pattern of CO disposal gas of the fuel sample used in this experiment can be seen on Figures 4.5a
and 4.5b, each at the height of 50 cm and 200 cm above the furnace. It is indicated that within the first 20
minutes at the two points of monitoring, AK, BB and BS exhibit emission of CO disposal gas exceeding EQS
of 1,000 mg/m3. This is possibly caused by that the three fuels contains high volatile matters (VM) (> 40%)
compared with BT and BL that contain VM less than 40%. Beyond 20 minutes, CO emission fluctuates and the
content still greater than EQS. This fluctuation is presumed that the combustion process of briquette and
charcoal occurs layer by layer.
IV.5 Toxicity of briquette ashes
Besides waste of disposal gas, briquette combustion produces solid waste in the form of ashes. This ash
originates from inorganic compounds is contained as constituent in the main fuel sample, so that it can pollute
the environment because it contains heavy metal elements, and usually this solid waste is disposed just like that.
At the removal location,
environmental problems comes up caused by the condition of the heavy metal elements leached from ash, and
finally pollutes the underground and surface water. To overcome this problem, toxicity of briquette ash should
necessarily be determined, because coal ash is still categorized as dangerous and poisonous materials.
26
CO, mg/m3
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Waktu, menit
Tim e (m inute)
AK
BB
BS
BT
BL
Figure 4.5a
EQS and emission of waste gas (CO) of briquette combustion at the height of 50 am above furnace
CO, mg/m3
3000
2000
1000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Waktu,
menit
Time
(minute)
AK
BB
BS
BT
BL
Figure 4.5b
EQS and emission of waste gas (CO) of briquette combustion at the height of 200 am above furnace
In this investigation, chemical composition and its capacity of toxicity of ash resulted from briquette and
charcoal combustion is analyzed by using EPA Method 1311 8). Chemical composition of ash sample is shown
on Table 4.3. Data indicates that the main composition of coal briquette ash is silica (SiO2) and alumina
(Al2O3) with the variation of concentration between 33.7 – 63.9% and 15.48-22.5% respectively. Besides, coal
briquette ash BB and BS contain very high CaO (>24.8%) compared with briquette ash of BT and BL. This is
due to that Briquette BB and BS is made from mixture of coal and biomass ( rice husk and sugar cane waste),
while briquette BL and BT is only made from coal. Is is presumed that CaO is originated from biomass
(charcoal contains of 23.4% CaO). The other oxides in the coal briquette are Fe2O3, MgO, K2O, TiO2 and
Na2O with the total concentration of less than 10%. The other available oxides in the coal briquette ash are acid
oxides such as SO3 and P2O5.
It can be seen on Table 4.3 that besides the above oxides, coal ash also contains heavy metal elements such
as Pb, Cu and Zn with very low concentration (< 500 ppm).
Data of toxicity test of ash resulted from coal briquette combustion by using EPA Method 1311 can be seen
on Table 4.4. The result of toxicity test of Pb, Cu, Zn elements in coal briquette ash is very low, viz. undetected
Pb and Cu elements between 0 – 16.ppb and Zn between 13 – 286.5 ppb. While Fe and Mn are not as key
parameter to test. Those values are still below the permissible standard limit related to EPA criteria. Then it
could be stated that the ash sample resulted from coal briquette combustion is not included in the category of
dangerous and poisonous materials.
IV.6 The efforts of mitigating gas and solid wastes
In lieu with the UN COP since 2008 it has been tried to launch program of REDD (Reduced Emission
from Deforestation and Degradation), then to encourage program of reducing green house gases including
disposal gases from small industry activity. Briquette is usually utilized in the small industry especially in the
27
developing countries. So that it is important to try to plant several types of plants that could be able to absorb
those disposal gases produced by industry including small industry.
Table 4.3
Result of chemical analysis of charcoal ash and briquette ash
No
Parameter
Unit
Ash resulted from combustion
AK
BB
BS
BT
BL
1.
SiO2, silicon oxide
%
16,68
33,7
34,9
63,9
52,9
2.
Al2O3, aluminum oxide
%
3,74
15,48
22,5
20,2
22,2
3.
Fe2O3, iron oxide
%
1,33
3,75
2,06
3,40
8,07
4.
TiO2, titanium oxide
%
2,38
0,76
1,69
1,73
1,90
5.
CaO, calcium oxide
%
23,4
29,8
24,8
1,45
0,88
6.
MgO, magnesium oxide
%
4,62
0,86
0,55
0,84
0,63
7.
K2O, kalium oxide
%
18,92
1,65
1,93
1,56
0,34
8.
Na2O, natrium oxide
%
0,82
0,67
0,28
0,56
1,61
9.
MnO, manganese oxide
%
0,11
0,017
0,008
0,017
0,030
10.
SO3, sulfur trioxide
%
2,68
4,18
7,45
1,92
2,80
11.
P2O5, phosphor pentoxide
%
0,046
0,023
0,046
0,093
0,023
12.
LOI, loss on ignition
%
24,7
8,61
3,19
3,76
8,07
13.
Pb, lead
%
0,013
0,020
0
0
0
14.
Cu, copper
%
0,021
0,004
0,004
0,001
0,006
15.
Zn, zinc
%
0,032
0,007
0,005
0,005
0,010
Description: Calculation is based on air dry basis or adb).
Table 4.4
Result of TCLP test of ash of charcoal and briquette
No
Parameter
Unit
TCLP of combustion ash
AK
Standard
BB
BS
BT
BL
EPA, ppm
1.
Pb, lead
ppb
0
0
0
0
0
5
2.
Cu, copper
ppb
0
14.5
16.5
0
4
5
3.
Zn, zinc
ppb
37
13
18
90
286.5
100
4.
Fe, iron
ppb
82
137
121.5
112
108.5
-
5.
Mn, manganese
ppb
23.5
49.5
54
2795
8392
-
Table 4.5 shows that several types of plant are able to absorb several kinds of disposal gases such as
COx, SOx and NOx. This program could be called as REFF (Reduced Emission from Fossil Fuels and
Renewable Wastes).16)
28
Table 4.5
Area of plants required to absorb CO2 released from coal combustion. 16)
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Types of plant
1.
Acacia auricliformis
2.
Caliandra calothysus
3. L Leucaena leucacephala
4.
Algizia falcataria
5.
Eucalyptus SP
Area of plant
(Ha)
40,000
62,000
31,000
27,000
20,000
Quantity
of fired coal
(tonne)
2,200,000
2,200,000
2,200,000
2,200,000
2,200,000
Description
- Every combustion of 1 tonne of
Indonesia coal will emit
CO2 2.293 tonnes,
CO 0.073 tonnes,
NOx 0.029 tonnes, and
SO2 0.0086 tonnes.
The domestic consumption of primary energy in Indonesia in 2005 is 843.3 million BOE (263.5 million TCE,
Tonne Coal Equivalent) or about 940.26 million BOE in 2010. Consumption of oil in 2005 was around 129.6
million TCE and gas and coal being each of 48.7 million TCE and 64.3 million TCE.18) The total fossil fuel
consumption is of about 242.6 million TCE. Using the average quality of oil and coal shown on Table 4.6, the
emission of carbon would be 144.7 million tonnes per annum. 15) This figure is equal to 530.63 million
tonnes.of CO2. About 61.02 million tonnes of CO2 emissions came from coal combustion in power
generations, cement, and biomass combustion from small industries rural households.15,17) The biomass fuel
consumption of small industry and rural households might be substituted into briquette (of coal and biomass or
mixed). Indonesia constitutes an archipelago with widespread tropical forest and vegetation. The total area
covers 5.2 million km2, from which 1.9 million km2 consists of land. The rest, 3.3 million km2, is ocean or sea.
The forest area is estimated to be about 119.7 million Ha. On Java island the forest area is of about 3.01 million
Ha less than 30% of the Java area of land (the required minimum percentage area of forest). Assuming that the
total absorption of the forest to be 121 tonnes CO2 per Ha per year (Acacia auriculiformis), the area of forest or
vegetation needed to absorb the 530.63 million tonnes of CO 2 emission per annum from consumption of all
fossil fuel in Indonesia is about 4.41 million Ha in Indonesia. Compared with the world emission, from fossil
fuel Indonesia as the 14th country of the world contributes about 1.4% of the total CO2 emission (Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), 2004 collected in 2007). For Java island as the densest
population and industry region in the country (area of about 132,000 km2 or about 7% of the Indonesia area of
land), around 26 million tonnes of coal consumption for power plant and cement industry would result in the
emission of 56.8 million tonnes of CO2 per year. And to absorb 56.8 million tonnes of CO 2 emission just from
coal combustion in Java needs about 0.47 million Ha of forest. 15,18) The forest area which can absorb and reduce
the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere is now decreasing in Java island. In addition, the combustion of
other fossil fuels (oil and gas) will also increase.
Table 4.6
The average ultimate quality of Indonesia oil and coal
No
Analysis
Oil (%) *)
Coal (%)
1.
Moisisture
0.90
15.0
2.
Sulfur
0.012
6.43
3.
Hydrogen
0.19
0.61
4.N
Nitrogen
11.20
5.67
5.C
Carbon
0.45
0.91
6.
87.25
63.00
*) Oil and Gas Technology Research and Development Center, Indonesia Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources.
Related to this investigation on briquette combustion, the estimated consumption of agricultural waste
and forest waste (biomass) for small industry (4.4 million TCE per annum) and rural households in Java in total
is of about 17.5 million TCE per annum, and of about 37.5 million TCE per annum in Indonesia. 17) In Java, for
mitigating CO2 emitted from small industry and rural households that usually uses briquette (of biomass, coal
or mixed), area of forest of 31,819 Ha is required, out of other industries (power plants, manufacturing and
29
urban households) and transportation requirement. Installment of stack system based on standard operating
procedure (SOP) is required by every furnace or complex of furnaces in the small industry to absorb waste
gases and fly ashes resulted from briquette (or biomass) fuel combustion. Although the absorbing capacity of
the existing forest in Java (i.e. of around 3.01 million Ha) is not known, the CO2 emitted by coal combustion is
considered to be significant problem to the green house effect, however since Java island is surrounded by
ocean which can assist to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. Moreover, the existing power generation (Suralaya,
Tanjungjati and Paiton located in Java island) is on the seaside. The increasing projection of coal utilization in
the future as the effort of substitution for oil fuel, coal utilization technologies which can reduce CO2 emissions
as well particulate waste are considered to be the best way to solve the problem of green house effect.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
V.1 Conclusions
Based on the result of research data, several conclusions could be drawn as the followings:
a. The briquette fuel used in this investigation contains moisture and volatile matters lower than charcoal, while
ash and fixed carbon content is higher.
b. Sugar cane waste briquette indicates the highest temperature of furnace (around 605 oC compared with other
briquettes and charcoal.
c. By using water boiling water method, the increase of water temperature for the five kinds of fuel is similar,
even though the experiment by using sugar cane waste the boiling of water is faster than the others. The boiling
time by using the briquette occurs at the 22 nd minute.
d. Heat energy per unit time under the maximum condition resulted by rice husk briquette (BS) indicates the
higher value (11,990 W(att) per 0.73 kg of sample). While sugar cae waste briquette indicates per time unit
equals charcoal, viz. 7,426 W (per 0.52 kg of sample) and 7,228 W (per 0,44 kg of sample) and the briquettes
BT and BL indicate energy per time unit of 5,261 W (per 0.42 kg of sample) and 5,531 W (per 0.41 kg of
sample). Heat energy per time unit under the minimum condition, the five types of fuel indicates the similar
level of around 1,104 – 1,664 W.
e. Under the maximum condition, the furnace efficiency of charcoal (AK) is 8.38%, and the four types of
briquette is of around 6.89-11.30 %. While under the minimum condition, the furnace efficiency of charcoal
(AK) is of 37.24 % and the other briquettes are between 26.28 – 50.84%.
f. Emission of the disposal gases of the five types of fuel, in general, shows the similar pattern (up to the minute
of 20th) , where at the temperature of 150-600 oC gas emission of SO2 of BB and BS has exceeded EQS
(environmental quality standard, 300 mg/m3). While emission of NOx and CO of all the samples exhibits still
under EQS. Based on this preliminary investigation, it can be concluded that briquettes BL and BT exhibit
better in term of its emission of pollutant gas. Safety of the briquette utilization requires further investigation of
gas emission effect on human health.
g. Ashes resulted from briquette combustion could be categorized as not dangerous and poisonous material
according to the US EPA standard.
h. Related to this investigation on briquette combustion, the estimated consumption of agricultural waste and
forest waste (biomass) for small industry (4.4 million TCE per annum) and rural households in Java in total is of
about 17.5 million TCE per annum, and of about 37.5 million TCE per annum in Indonesia. In Java, for
mitigating CO2 emitted from small industry and rural households that usually uses briquette (of biomass, coal
or mixed), area of forest of 31,819 Ha is required, out of other industries (power plants, manufacturing and
urban households) and transportation requirement.
V.2. Recommendations
To obtain more accurate and complete data, it is required:
a. Investigation on furnace efficiency by using various types of furnace to find out its modification toward
environmental friendly.
b. Influence of briquette combustion on human (user) health.
c. Investigation on pollution of organic material product of combustion on human health.
d. Test of toxicity on briquette ash from the side of biological living.
e. Investigation on coal ashes in the purpose of its possible potential utilization (as conditioner, building
materials, etc.).
f. It is necessary to investigate the green house gas (GHG) absorption capacity of the available Indonesia
forest, particularly in Java island, and the necessity to enlarge it to meet the demand of mitigating effect of
GHG due to the ever increasing GHG in the atmosphere in the coming years.
30
References
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(National Energy Coordination Board, 1990. General Policy on Energy).
2. Gandataruna K., 1993. Pembangunan Pertambangan Yang Berwawasan Lingkungan, Disajikan dalam
Seminar Nasional Integrasi Ekologi dan Ekonomi dalam Pembangunan dan Pengolahan Sumberdaya
Alam, ITB, Bandung, 7-8 Juni 1993. (Mining development with environmentally outlook. Seminar on
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is made possible through the cooperation between Mineral and Coal Technology Research
Center (MCTRDC), Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, and Bandung Islamic University, Indonesia.
This paper is submitted to Air Quality VIII, An International Conference on Carbon Management, Mercury,
Trace Substances, SOx, NOx, and Particulate Matter, October 24-27, 2011, Arlington, VA, USA held by
Energy and Environment Research Center Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA. High appreciation is delivered to
the Committee of the International Conference. This paper is supported by Low Carbon Development Project UK Department for International Development (DfID) and Ministry of Finance Republic of Indonesia.
Bandung , January 2011.
31
Lampiran C: Biodata pelapor.
Bio Data
Name
: Ukar W.Soelistijo, BE, Ir, MSc Min.Ec, Ph.D, APU .
Place/date of birth :
Blora, Indonesia, 19 Juli 1940
Occupation
:
- Senior Lecturer: Bandung Islamic University; Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB); and Indonesia-Japan Polytechnic
Bandung, Indonesia.
- Senior Researcher, Mineral and Coal Technology R&D Center, Agency for Energy and Mineral Research, Ministry of Energy and
Mineral Resources, Indonesia (Retired in 2005).
Home address: PPTM Housing Complex # 20, Jalan Jend.Sudirman 623 Bandung 40211, Indonesia. Phone:62-22-6030559.
Email
:ukar@tekmira.esdm.go.id;ukarws@yahoo.com
Education :
- BE, Acadeny of Geology and Mining, Ministry of Mines, Bandung, Indonesia, 1964
- Ir, Mining Metallurgy, Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia, 1971
- M Sc Min Ec, West Virginia State University, USA,1978
- Ph D , Mineral and Energy Resource Economics,West Virginia State University, USA, 1984
- Indonesia National Defense College, 1992, Seroja Wibawa Nugraha (Appreciation of Championship).
- Senior Researcher (APU) in Mineral Technology, Indonesia Science Agency, 2005.
- Professor in Management, Northern California Global University USA, 2002.
Narrative of occupation :
- 1964-1989 Researcher at Mineral Technology Research and Development Center (MTRDC), Bandung, Indonesia.
- 1989-1996 Director of MTRDC Bandung, Ministry of Mines, Indonesia.
- 1987- up to the present Senior Lecturer of Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB).
- 2005 Senior Lecturer at University of Padjadjaran Bandung (UNPAD)..
- 1988 – up to the present Senior Lecturer at Bandung Islamic University (UNISBA).
- 1979- up to now : Instructor at the Mineral and Coal Education and Training Center Bandung, Indonesia Ministry of Energy
and Mineral Resources.
- 1995-2001 Senior Advisor to the Indonesia Minister of Mines and Energy.
- 1997-2001 Chairman of the Indonesia Mining Council.
- 1997- 2002 President Commisioner of the State-Owned Company PT Koneba (Energy Conservation) (Tbk).
Activities:
- Member of scientific organization/association: Assciation of Indonesian Engineers, AIME (USA), East-West center, International
Association of Mineral Economist, Komite Nasional Indonesia – World Energy Conference (KNI-WEC).
- Presenter at the various national and international seminars/conferences in the fileds of mineral, energy, management, and
resources since the year of 1971 (in Asean, Asia, USA,. Europe).
- Member of the Indonesia Delegates at the various international and regional meetings/conferences (Asean, APEC, APO-Tokyo),
INSG, East West Center-Hawaii).
Appreciation/rewards:
- Certificate of Appreciation, From Circum Pacific Energy and Mineral Resources Conference Honolulu, Amerika Serikat 1971.
- Rotary Club of Bandung, Indonesia, 1987.
- Wibawa Seroja Nugraha (Appreciation of Championship), National Defense College, Indonesia, 1992.
- Satyalancana Karya Satya (Indonesia Award of Merit) of 30 Years (by President of Indonesia), 1997.
- Satyalancana Wira Karya (Indonesia Award of Opus/Creation) (by President of Indonesia), 1997.
- Man of the Year 2000, Central Java Association of Journalist.
- Profile of 27 Indonesian Executives, 2001, Central Java Independent Journalist Forum.
- Top Profile of Indonesia,2001, Indonesia Profile and Biography Center.
- International Best Leadership Award,2002, International Human Resource Development Program.
- Appreciation for devotion and merit, Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources, Indonesia., 2007.
- Eminent Creation Duty in Energy and Mineral Resources, Indonesia Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources,2008.
Bandung, June1,2011.
Ukar W. Soelistijo
32