Chapter 9: Manipulation and
improvement of memory
Learning activity suggested answers
Learning Activity 9.1 (p. 345)
For each of the following examples, identify one or more measures of retention that could be used:
free recall (FR), serial recall (SR), cued recall (CR), recognition (RG) or relearning (RL).
Activities
Measure of retention
remembering a friend’s mobile phone number without
cues
SER (order is important)
playing ‘Hangman’
CR (number of letters provides a cue)
using photos from a trip to describe your experiences
CR (photos provide cues)
FR (may simply recall all digits in correct
order)
RG (selecting a photo from among
alternatives to describe an experience)
identifying a friend who appears in a news report
RG
remembering the directions to a friend’s house
SR (order is important)
writing out the words of a song from memory
SR (order is important)
reading back over your textbook before an exam
RL
writing out the words of a song with the music of the
song playing in the background.
CR
Note: Accept alternatives if validly argued.
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Learning Activity 9.2 (p. 346)
1
Explain the meaning of the term measure of retention.
Measure of retention is a method of measuring the amount of information retained in memory.
2
3
4
Briefly describe the three different measures of retention, with reference to examples not used
in the text.
•
Recall: reproducing information that has been stored in memory with or without retrieval
cues depending on the recall method, e.g. free recall - during period 6, remembering what
you ate at lunchtime when asked what you ate.
•
Recognition: identifying the correct information from among alternatives, e.g. correctly
identifying your lost cap among others in lost property.
•
Relearning/method of savings: learning information again that has been previously learned
and stored in LTM, e.g. learning lines for a school production role over a period of time
builds on previous learning and is usually quicker/more expedient each time the lines are
rehearsed.
List the three measures of retention in order of sensitivity.
•
relearning – most sensitive
•
recognition – less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall
•
recall – least sensitive
Choose one concept you have studied this semester and write a question requiring the recall
method and a question requiring the recognition method.
Examples:
Recall:
In which lobe is the primary motor cortex located?; The primary motor cortex is located in the
________________ lobe.
Recognition:
In which lobe is the primary motor cortex located?
A
frontal lobe
B
parietal lobe
C
occipital lobe
D
temporal lobe
a
Describe two ways of measuring retention using relearning (the method of savings).
5
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Savings may be based on number of trials or time taken, i.e.
(no. of trials for original learning) – (no. of trials for relearning)
100
Savings = ________________________________________________________ x___
(no. of trials for original learning)
1
(time for original learning) – (time for relearning)
Savings = ____________________________________________________
(time for original learning)
b
100
x ___
1
Ahmed took 30 minutes to learn a list of ten Spanish words when they were first given to
him. When he had to relearn them before a test the following week, it took him five
minutes.
i
Using a method of savings formula, calculate the amount of retention of information
from the first learning session to the second learning session.
(time for original learning) – (time for relearning)
100
Savings = ____________________________________________________ x ___
(time for original learning)
= ____________
x
1
30 – 5
100
___
1
= 83.33%
ii
Explain what this figure means in terms of Ahmed’s retention of Spanish words.
Ahmed has retained about 83.33% of this Spanish vocabulary list. It took him about
one sixth or about 16.66% of the time it took him initially to relearn the list.
6
Read Nelson’s (1978) research on measures of retention (pages 344–345) and answer the
following questions:
a
Name the experimental design.
Repeated Measures
b
What is an advantage of using this design for this experiment?
The experimenter has strict control over individuals participant variables.
c
What is a limitation of using this design for this experiment?
Participant attrition - loss of participants over subsequent trials.
d
Name the sampling procedure.
Convenience sampling
e
What question about the ethical value of justice could be raised in relation to the study?
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
clear and known to students at the time of course selection, so that they elected to
take the course with full knowledge of research study participation requirements;
•
informed consent: as above, but students also sign documentation about the required
research study participation and have access to information on the purpose,
conditions and implications of the study as well as how this research will be used and
published;
•
withdrawal rights: students should still be able to withdraw and not be affected
adversely from withdrawing beforehand or at any stage of the study;
•
confidentiality: by agreeing to participate, participants’ anonymity must be protected.
Learning Activity 9.4 (p. 349)
Evaluate the experiment conducted by Godden and Baddeley (1975). You may present the
evaluation as an annotated diagram; for example, as a flow chart.
Example:
Aim: to compare the efficiency of land training and underwater training of deep-sea divers
Hypothesis: Deep-sea divers will demonstrate better recall when they retrieve words in the context where they
were learnt or when the memory of those words was formed.
IV: context where learning takes place (on land/the beach or five metres underwater)
DV: number/percent of words correctly recalled
Experimental design: independent-groups
Procedure:
Part 1—Condition 1: learning/remembering 40 unrelated words on land; Condition 2: learning/remembering
words the same 40 unrelated words under water.
Part 2—Condition 3: retrieving/recalling words on land; Condition 4: retrieving/recalling words under water
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Participant allocation: participants randomly allocated to Condition 1 or 2 and then randomly allocated
to either Condition 3 or 4.
Results:
1.
2.
The divers recalled up to 20% more words when the words were learned and retrieved in the same
context, whether on land or under water.
Recall is better when both learning and retrieval take place on land than when both learning and
retrieval take place on underwater.
Conclusion:
The hypothesis was supported, as deep-sea divers demonstrated better recall when they retrieved words
in the context where they were learnt. The results suggest that the context, or environment, where a
memory is formed can provide retrieval cues, such as sights, sounds and smells, that can help access the
memories formed in that context.
Learning Activity 9.5 (p. 350)
1
Explain the difference between context dependent cue and state dependent retrieval cues with
reference to a specific example not used in the text.
context-dependent cue: an external, environmental cue in the specific situation (‘context’)
where a memory was formed that acts as a retrieval cue to help access the memories formed in
that context. Example: Sam is an adult who cannot recall the name of a childhood friend. On
returning to the neighbourhood where he played with his friend, context cues assist retrieval of
the name.
state-dependent cue: an internal cue associated with the physiological and/or psychological
state at the time the memory was formed and that acts as a retrieval cue to help access a
memory. Example: Sam reunites with his childhood friend and they start laughing at a shared
story. This happy, positive mood triggers retrieval of another happy memory believed to have
been forgotten.
2
Give an example of an everyday life situation involving both context- and state-dependent cues.
Discuss student examples to clarify conceptual understanding.
3
Explain how context- and state-dependent cues can improve or enhance retrieval from LTM. For
each type of cue, give two relevant examples linked to memory improvement.
Explanation should refer to improving or enhancing retrieval by recreating the conditions under
which the required memory was originally formed.
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Examples should refer to retrieval failure followed by successful retrieval due to the presence of
context- and state-dependent cues. Discuss student examples to clarify conceptual
understanding.
Learning Activity 9.7 (p. 356)
1
a
What is a mnemonic device?
A mnemonic device is a technique for enhancing or improving memory.
b
How do mnemonic devices improve memory?
Explanation should refer to use of information already in memory for elaborative encoding,
thereby enhancing organisation (often in a cohesive whole) and better enabling retrieval,
e.g. retrieval of one bit assists retrieval of the rest.
2
Construct a table that summarises the mnemonic devices described in this chapter: acronyms,
acrostics and narrative chaining.
Headings should include ‘Name of device’, ‘Type of information it suits’, ‘How it is used’,
‘Example’, ‘Why it is effective’.
Name of
device
Type of
information it
suits
How it is used
Example
Why it is effective
acronym
all
A pronounceable
word is formed from
the first letters of a
sequence of words.
Retrieval of the
acronym enables
retrieval of the
letters that act as
cues for the
sequence of words.
In turn, the words
may be retrieval
cues for other
information, e.g. a
key point in an
essay.
the word 'CARTHRIL', to enhance
memory of monocular and binocular
cues for visual perception, i.e.
•
It enhances
organised
storage and
retrieval of
multiple bits of
related
information.
•
It chunks
multiple bits
into a single unit
so that only the
unit needs to be
retrieved and
then parts of
the unit assist
retrieval of the
bits.
constructing phrases
or sentences using
the first letters of
the phrase 'Little Betty Boron chews
nuts on Friday next', to enhance
memory of chemistry elements 3–10:
•
elaborative
encoding and
organisation by
acrostic
all
(particularly
useful for
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C = convergence,
A = accommodation,
R = retinal disparity,
T = texture gradient,
H = height in the visual field,
R = retinal disparity,
I = interposition,
L = linear perspective
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
remembering
information in
sequential
order)
narrative
chaining
3
particularly
useful for bits
of information
that seem
unrelated
the information to
be remembered
linking otherwise
unrelated items to
one another to
form a meaningful
sequence or story
lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon
to enhance memory of the order of
bones from the outer to the inner ear in
biology, the story: ‘An old blacksmith
lost his hammer. It was hiding behind
the anvil. His daughter was able to see
it, as she used the stirrup to mount her
horse to get a better view of the
workshop.’
making verbal
associations
between the
phrase and
items to be
remembered
•
The sequence of
words, as well
as the first
letter in
acrostics both
provide cues to
enhance
retrieval.
•
Elaboration and
chunking add
organisation
and
meaningfulness
to otherwise
meaningless
material.
•
By making a
story, the
material is
structured and
given meaning
in a narrative.
Briefly describe three characteristics that the various mnemonic devices have in common.
Characteristics in common include:
•
elaboration using information already in LTM,
•
association of ‘new’ information (to be remembered) and ‘old’ information (already in
LTM),
•
enhancing organisation through cohesion or chunking.
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Learning Activity 9.8 (p. 357)
Students should conclude that List B is easier to remember than List A, despite both lists containing
identical words, as List B words are sequenced or ’narratively chained’ in order to create a
meaningful sentence or a meaningful whole.
Learning Activity 9.11 (p. 363)
1
Define the meaning of memory construction.
Definition should refer to the process of actively recreating/reassembling/reconstruc-ting the
details of a specific long-term memory during retrieval (usually without conscious awareness of
doing so).
2
Explain how and why memory construction is believed to occur.
Explanation of how should refer to factors that can contribute to errors and distortions
•
during LTM construction (i.e. when formed) and
•
during LTM reconstruction (i.e. during retrieval), e.g. personal thoughts, values, attitudes,
beliefs, prior experiences, expectations.
Explanation of why should refer to:
•
LTM not always being an exact replica of an event,
•
our tendency to remember some key details of an event (i.e. there are gaps in the LTM),
and
•
during retrieval the memory is actively reconstructed with missing bits filled so that the
memory is a logical and plausible account of what might have happened (but not
necessarily accurate).
a
Explain what a leading question is with reference to the use of a presupposition.
3
A leading question is a question that:
b
•
is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired or to lead to the desired
answer, or
•
contains a presupposition, i.e. information that is or must be true in order for the
question to make sense.
Give an example of a leading question with a presupposition, other than an example given
in the text.
Example: Someone who witnessed a fight in the schoolyard is asked: 'Did X push Y with one
or two hands?' This question presupposes/assumes that X actually pushed Y.
4
Explain, with reference to research evidence, how a leading question can be used to manipulate
memory reconstruction by eyewitnesses.
A leading question can be used to change an eyewitness’ memory of a critical incident through
post-event exposure to inaccurate/’misleading’ information that was introduced through one or
more leading questions. For example, a Loftus study shows that a leading question can be used
to add or ’plant’ new, false information to or in an eyewitnesses’ memory of a critical event,
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
thereby increasing the likelihood of that information being integrated/included in their
reconstructed memory when prompted to recall that memory by a closely related question
asked at a later time during the trial.
5
Explain whether Loftus’s research findings on the reconstructive nature of memory are relevant
to long-term memories other than episodic memories.
Explanation should refer to Bartlett’s (1932) research demonstrating memory reconstruction
with stimulus materials such as prose (story or essay) and pictures, i.e. the reconstructive
nature of memory is relevant to long-term memories other than episodic memories.
Learning Activity 9.12 (p. 363)
1
a
Graph the results in Table 9.3.
Accept either a bar graph or line graph. The line graph is appropriate as the verbs are
ordered from most intense to least intense.
Mean estimate of speed
(mph)
Example:
50
40
30
20
10
0
Smashed
b
Collided Bumped
Hit
Verbs used in the question
Contacted
Describe and explain the results in the graph with reference to the experimental
procedures used by Loftus and Palmer (1974).
Example: the data show that the wording or phrasing of the critical question brought about
a change in speed estimate. The more intense the verb used in the critical question, the
higher the participants’ estimates of the speed of the vehicles.
2
Briefly explain the meaning of the phrase ‘the differences in speed estimates were found to be
statistically significant (at p < 0.005)’.
p <0.005: probability of results being due to chance is less than 0.5% or 5 in 1000 repetitions of
the study meaning that chance is at an acceptable level and the results may be due to the verb
used to complete the critical question requiring a speed estimate
3
Explain whether or not conclusions drawn from table 9.3 are influenced by the lack of a control
group in the experiment.
The lack of a control group is not of relevance (nor essential) to this particular experiment or its
conclusions. The IV is manipulated by means of the wording of the questions, with a different
word/verb/phrase, varying in intensity, being used in each of five conditions.
4
Graph the results in table 9.4.
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
50
Number of responses
45
40
35
30
25
Yes
20
No
15
10
5
0
Smashed
5
Hit
Verb Condition
Control
Explain why 16 participants in the ‘smashed’ verb condition reported seeing broken glass.
Explanation may refer to:
6
•
‘new’ false information supplied after the event (as a presupposition in the critical question
on the speed of the cars) being integrated in the reconstruction of a new distorted
memory.
•
source confusion e.g. over time, participants are unable to tell the difference between
information processed when forming the original memory and information received later
in the critical question
Suggest an explanation for six control group participants reporting that they saw broken glass.
Explanation may refer to the fact that the reconstructive memory process allows for incorrect
information to be introduced.
7
What do the data in table 9.4 indicate about participant attrition?
There was no participant attrition.
Loftus and Palmer used 150 volunteer university students in this study, with 50 randomly
assigned to one of three conditions/groups.
Table 9.4 shows 50 responses in each of the three conditions and therefore no loss of any
participant.
Learning Activity 9.13 (p. 363-4)
Evaluate the research study conducted by Loftus and Palmer (1974). You may present your
evaluation of the two experiments as an annotated diagram; for example, as a flow chart.
You are required to:
•
construct a research hypothesis that could have been tested by the procedures used in each
experiment
Experiment 1
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
The more intense the verb used in a critical question on the speed of vehicles involved in a
collision, the higher will be the estimates of the speed of the vehicles made by university
students who observe the collision in short film.
Experiment 2
University students who have been asked the critical question that contains the verb ‘smashed’
will more often report that they saw broken glass in the collision that they have previously seen,
than will students in the other groups, who had been asked the question containing the verb
‘hit’ and than will students in the control group.
•
identify the sample in each experiment and the population from which these were drawn
Experiment 1
45 volunteer students from the university where the researchers worked
Experiment 2
150 volunteer students from the university where the researchers worked
•
identify the participant selection and allocation procedures
Experiment 1
participant selection: volunteer participants were selected using convenience sampling (as they
were drawn from the university where the researchers worked)
participant allocation: participants were randomly allocated to one of five conditions or groups
Experiment 2
participant selection: volunteer participants were selected using convenience sampling (as they
were drawn from the university where the researchers worked)
participant allocation: participants were randomly allocated to one of three groups
•
identify the operationalised variables in each experiment
Experiment 1
IV: wording/phrasing of the critical question; intensity of verb used
DV: estimated speed of vehicles
Experiment 2
IV: wording/phrasing of the critical question; intensity of verb used
DV: answering ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to seeing broken glass
•
identify the conditions in each experiment
Experiment 1
five experimental conditions for which a different verb—'smashed', 'collided', 'bumped', 'hit',
'contacted'—was used in the critical question; no control group
Experiment 2
EGroup 1—‘smashed’ question; EGroup 2—‘hit’ question; control group—not interrogated
about vehicular speed
•
identify the type of experimental design used
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
Experiment 1
independent-groups
Experiment 2
independent-groups
•
briefly state the results obtained
Experiment 1
the more intense the verb, the higher the speed estimate
Experiment 2
EGroup 1 (‘smashed’): 16 report seeing broken glass; EGroup 2 (‘hit’): 7 report seeing broken
glass; control group: 6 report seeing broken glass
•
briefly state a conclusion based on the results obtained
Experiment 1
The wording of the question influenced the speed estimates, with the most intense verb
('smashed') bringing about the highest speed estimate and the least intense verb ('contacted')
bringing about the lowest speed estimates.
Experiment 2
The wording of the original question participants were asked in the first part of the experiment
influenced whether or not they reported seeing broken glass.
•
briefly state what the conclusion suggests about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
Experiment 1
The way in which a question is asked can influence or distort the memory of an event and
therefore the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Experiment 2
The way in which a question is asked about an event has consequences for how other questions
about that event are answered well after the event occurred. Therefore, questioning technique
can be used to manipulate recall by eyewitnesses and accuracy of their testimony.
•
briefly state the researchers’ explanation of the results
Experiment 1
Results could be due to participants’ memories being distorted by the verb used to characterise
the intensity of the car crash they witnessed. Results could have been affected by response bias
(demand characteristics), e.g. feeling uncertain about the exact speed of the cars may have
influenced participants to adjust their estimates to fit in with the expectations of the
researcher.
Experiment 2
Loftus and Palmer suggested that participants formed a memory of the car crash they
witnessed on viewing the film. In the first part of the experiment and Integrated with this
memory was the additional piece of ‘new’ false information supplied after the event about the
cars having either ‘smashed into’ or ‘hit’ each other. This information was included as a
presupposition in the critical question on the speed of the cars. When asked one week later
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Chapter 9: Manipulation and improvement of memory
whether they saw any broken glass at the accident scene, participants remembered broken
glass that wasn’t really there. Over time, information from the two different sources (events
witnessed when viewing the film and the presupposition in the leading ‘critical’ question asked
afterward) had been integrated in the reconstruction of a new distorted memory. Participants
were unable to tell that key information in their memory had come from different sources.
•
identify a potential extraneous or confounding variable that could impact on the results
obtained if uncontrolled and explain how it was controlled
Experiment 1
Controls included the age of the participants, the use of film and the experimental setting or
location of the experiment. All participants were asked the same questions (apart from the
critical question with a different verb). A different ordering of the films was presented to each
group of participants.
Experiment 2
Controls included the age of the participants, the use of film and the experimental setting or
location of the experiment. The critical question ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ in the
questionnaire given to participants was placed in a random position on each participant’s
questionnaire.
•
comment on the external validity of the experiment and the extent to which the results can be
generalised.
Experiment 1
External validity is suggested by similar results obtained by other researchers who have studied
reconstruction of memory using the same types of procedures and questioning techniques.
However, the potential for response bias or demand characteristics to have influenced the
results means that the experiment may have low internal validity and therefore low external
validity. In addition, consider the use of university students: uni students have considerable
experience at remembering information of transient significance for tests and exams and tend
to be unusually good at memory tasks compared to other people. (Note that the study has been
criticised on the grounds of ecological validity, e.g. the film does not have the same emotional
impact as witnessing a real-life accident).
Experiment 2
As above.
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