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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Romans & Christians (I)
Polytheism
The majority of the Roman Empire was polytheistic. The polytheistic religions, or
those with many deities, were symbolic religions in which their gods represented
elements of the natural world. A few of the polytheistic religions within the Roman
Empire included the Druids, those who worshipped Baal, and the Roman
Pantheon filled with gods. Being pious was very important, as the gods didn’t
differentiate in punishment. The gods punished everyone for the fault of the few.
Polytheists were generally more tolerant towards other religions than the
monotheists were. Many times, polytheists would adopt other religions into their
own.
Pax Deorum
The goal for the Polytheists was to please the gods and create the “peace of the
gods.” The immortal gods had a strong power over them.
Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE)
He was the first Roman emperor and was a strategic and strong administrator. He
wanted to reorganize the empire in order to strengthen it, as there was a lot of
religious diversity. The diversity made it difficult to rule. He introduced the…
Imperial Cult
Also known as the cult of the emperor, the imperial cult was the unifying religion
of the Roman Empire during and after Augustus’ reign. Because polytheists were
not hesitant to adopt new religious practices, the act of worshiping the emperor
wasn’t too far-fetched. The Jews were exempt from having to participate as the
Romans respected the importance of tradition in the monotheistic religion. The
Christians, being part of an illicit religion, were required to take part in the cult. In
this way, Augustus was able to bring homogeneity to a diversified Rome. Through
the imperial cult, the emperor became the “father” of the empire, and was ordained
with…
Genius
A divine spirit that lived within the emperor as well as anyone who performed the
rituals of the imperial cult
Neronian Persecution (64)
A fire started within the city by the Roman Emperor Nero catalyzed the persecution
of the Christians in the city of Rome. He placed the blame on the Christians because
they were a “non-conforming minority of exceptional cohesion.” The Roman
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
historian Tacitus who was writing after the fact about half a century later recounts
the events in his Annals. His perception of the Christians is as follows.
 “noxious superstition” – lethal/poisonous irrational ritual
 Christians are hated for their crimes, take their name from Christ (an
executed and hence criminal man)
 “deserving of the severest penalty”
Nero (54-68)
Nero is most commonly known for being a crazed Roman emperor. During his reign
in the year 64, there occurred the Great Fire of Rome and many put the cause of this
fire on Nero’s shoulders. It is said that he wanted to clear space through the use of
fire to put up monuments and idols of himself. Tacitus’ Annals may also shine
some light on the problems of an absolute ruler.
Tacitus (c. 115)
Tacitus was a Roman historian during the time period when Rome was beginning to
decline. He was conservative and wasn’t fond of the Jews or the Christians. His
opinions of both differed, though, as he held some respect for Jewish tradition, while
the Christians were a new religion and therefore had no bearing. He wrote about
events after they happened as is seen in the Annals as he writes about Nero, a
Roman emperor living half a century before. He sees Nero as a perfect example of
corruption.
Annals
The Roman historian Tacitus writes in the Annals about the Neronian Persecution
and other historical events before his time. See above.
Odium Generis Humani
Translated as “hatred of the human race” and was a common charge put upon
Christians during the Neronian Persecution and later.
Pliny & Trajan (c. 112)
Pliny was a proconsul in charge of dealing with arresting and punishing dissenters
within the empire, and was not sure of how to go about with the punishment. He
asks Trajan, the emperor of Rome at the time, in a series of letters what he should
do. Should Christians be punished for the crimes that go along with the name
“Christian” or should they be punished for individual crimes. What would be
considered a crime? Should there be leniency to certain people or any exceptions?
Trajan answers that the arrests shouldn’t be a hunt (notice the contrast between
this persecution and later Christian persecution against the Jews) and that Pliny
shouldn’t follow anonymous accusations and calls. The crime is not paying respect
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
to the Emperor and not worshiping the emperor in regard to the rules of the
Imperial Cult. Trajan also states that there are no set rules or regulations
regarding how to deal with the arrested and arrests and punishments should be
assigned individually based on the accused.
Lyons-Vienne Persecution (177)
This persecution was the culmination of a lot of the population acting against the
Christians as a socially and politically aloof group. It was mainly a “mob” organized
persecution rather than led by the Roman Empire. The persecution was centered in
Gaul (or present day France) and the mob believed in what they were doing as they
were doing the work of the gods. Christians were accused of Oedipodean
intercourse and Thyestean banquets (or baby eating). In the Letter of the
Churches of Vienne and Lyons, a Christian writes about the torture,
imprisonment, and death of many and also recounts the stories of martyrs such as
Blandina, Attalus, Sanctus, and Maturus. Martyrs like these only encouraged
the spread of Christianity.
Mystery Religions
These religions were “mysteries” to the Roman people and government because
they mostly held their rituals in private. The term mystery religion comes from the
Greek word “mysterion” which meant “secret.” Many of these religions focused on
nature and had selective participation (all male cults, all female cults, etc.). There
are overarching themes of resurrection and life after death. Many involve
physical initiation rituals and tend to bless their food and drink.
 Isis-Osiris
A mystery religion that originated in Egypt, this cult worshiped the two gods
Isis and Osiris, female and male respectively. The two gods were siblings as
well as husband and wife and lived a very happy and celibate life together.
Even though they never consummate their marriage, they have a son named
Horus. Their brother Seth becomes jealous of their happiness and cuts Osiris
into millions of pieces. It takes Osiris 1000 years to come back to life
(resurrection).
 Mithras
An old mystery religion that had resurgence during the 3rd century, Mithras
worshiped the god of light. Its followers noticed the change in amount of
time that the sun would stay up during the day as the seasons changed and
feared that they would one day be enveloped in darkness. They saw this as a
slow death of their god. By praying to the light god, they were able to bring
back the light (also known as the spring/summer season). This was a very
competitive religion with Christianity, but didn’t beat it in the end due to its
exclusivity in initiating only men. There was a strong military draw to the
cult as well and for initiation one must walk under a dead bull’s dripping
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
blood. During the winter months, many Christians would denounce their
religion (apostatize) and celebrate in the winter solstice festival. For this
reason, Jesus’ birthday was placed on December 25th to discourage the
apostacy.
Romans & Christians (II)
Origen (c. 248)
The Christian theologian was a defender of the Christian faith. He detested Celsus.
In his Apologies (defense), he wrote about Celsus’ arguments against Christianity.
Origen also introduced the idea of scholarship to Christianity, combining classic
literature with Christian texts.
Contra Celsum
The literal translation meaning “against Celsus,” Origen wrote this part of the
Apologies to counter Celsus’ points about the faults of Christianity in his book The
True Word.
Celsus (c. 180)
Celsus was a traditional Roman citizen who believed in the traditional Roman gods.
Christianity was unbelievable to him and therefore he detested it with a passion,
along with the religion of the Jews. They were nonconforming minorities of
exceptional cohesion. He wrote…
The True Word
Written by Celsus, The True Word talks about the inaccuracies of the Christian
faith as well as mentions the dangerous nature of the Christian people and warns
of their threat. This text is now lost but is remembered to this day through the
writings of Origen.
Decian Persecution (250)
There had been no consistent policy of persecution up until this time. We see this in
Pliny’s letters to Emperor Trajan. Many persecutions targeted Christian leaders
making martyrs of them. This did not help the Roman cause as it created a sense of
encouragement for the Christian people, as martyrdom was the most holy thing to
do. Decius, at first a military general and then emperor, was conservative and
believed that the Christians had been undermining the empire. He launched the
first empire-wide persecution of Christians (as opposed to local persecutions)
that lasted a full year. Everyone had to honor and worship the Roman gods. If they
didn’t, they would be tortured or executed. Many Christians denounced Jesus and in
turn betrayed other Christians by turning them over as well as turning over sacred
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
texts. It came to this point, later on, when the question arose of whom should the
Christian faith take back. Technically, if a Christian sins after being baptized, he
could never reach eternal salvation. There came the conflict between whether the
church should be a “Virgin Church,” one that was totally pure, and a “Mother
Church,” one that would forgive all sins. Through the use of confession, the church
adopted the role as a mother.
Perception of Christians: Motifs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
They abandoned the gods
They are the reasons for calamities
They are arrogant
They keep to themselves
HATRED FOR THE HUMAN RACE
They have mixed allegiance
They are undermining society by preying on the weak
They have incest and eat babies
They are sub-human
Constantine (312-337)
Culturally and linguistically, the Roman Empire was divided between the East and
West. Diocletian literally separated the empire, which led to wars of succession –
who should rule the east and the west after Diocletian’s reign ended. There was a
hierarchy instated. There would be an emperor of each half (the Augustus), and a
lesser ruler (the Caesar). Constantine was the emperor of the West half of the
Roman Empire and looked to gain more control. He was an enemy with Maxentius,
who he had struggled with to gain the Western portion of the empire. In 324 he
defeated Licinius, the emperor of the Eastern Empire. He converted to Christianity
after an experience on his way to the…
Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312)
On his way to a battle against his enemy Maxentius, Constantine had an experience
that caused him to turn to Christianity. He saw a burning cross that said in hoc
signo vinces (in this sign you will conquer). He had also had various dreams telling
him to adorn his shields with the letters X and P (chi and rho) representing the first
two symbols of Christ’s name. This would ensure victory in the battle. As the sign
proved true, Constantine converted. He also paid favor to the Christians at points as
he exempted priests from taxation and used part of the imperial budget to build
churches. However, he did not become fully Christian until he was baptized on his
deathbed, making sure that all of his sins would be forgiven.
Eusebius of Caesarea (d. 339)
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
A major historian of the early Christian Church as well as a bishop (point of view),
Eusebius recorded the event of Milvian Bridge. He also knew Constantine
personally.
Edict of Milan (313)
Co-issued by Constantine and the eastern Roman Emperor, the Edict of Milan was an
edict of toleration. All religions were allowed to practice their rituals.
Early Christian Church (I)
Auctoritas
Latin for authority, auctoritas was important in the church as every action and
assertion had to be backed by some legitimate authority. The bible was the most
important source of authority.
Priest
Coming from the Greek word presbyteros (elder), the priest was in charge of the
parish or the small local unit/church. The priesthood was male centered.
Bishop
In Greek, episkopos (overseer), the bishop would hold the power over the diocese
or a land encompassing multiple parishes. The diocese reflected the roman imperial
structure. The geographic unit of the diocese resembled the geographic structure of
imperial Rome. Like the priesthood, the bishop authority was male centered as well.
The bishops were the key figures in the medieval church. They appointed authority
to the priests. Power between bishops depended largely on the size of their diocese.
The bishop would live in the city and govern from there. The bishops in the east and
west differed. In the east, there were bishops (also known as patriarchs) of
Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria (later in Constantinople when Constantine
founded the city). In the west there was only one bishop, the bishop of Rome. The
amount of bishops led to conflict, mostly spurred on by the idea of…
Apostolic Succession
This was the claim that a diocese originated by an apostle. Rome, Antioch,
Jerusalem, and Alexandria could all claim apostolic succession while Constantinople
could not (as it was founded after the time of the apostles). The conflict came about
when the bishop of Rome claimed that he was the supreme bishop. Not only could
Rome claim apostolic succession with one apostle, but two apostles (Peter and
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Paul) that had founded the church. The east didn’t want to accept this, but
eventually the diocese there fell at the outbreak of Islam.
Petrine Doctrine
The Petrine Doctrine claimed papal authority for the bishop of Rome. It was
supported by the Gospel of Saint Matthew in which Jesus tells Peter (petrus) that
he is the rock (petros) and from him the Church will grow. It also claims that Peter
was the first bishop of Rome. This later brings about in 1059 the need for a
College of Cardinals to elect the pope (after papal authority is recognized by all).
The Cardinals were the “hinge” of the church and held the church together. They
would usually elect the less knowledgeable popes so that they (the cardinals) could
have more influence.
Leo I (440-461)
One of two popes that were awarded the name “Great,” Leo The Great created the
Petrine Doctrine, as he was the bishop of Rome.
Orthodoxy and Heresy
Ortho means straight and doxy means opinion. Orthodoxy was the idea of what
was right. The creation of orthodoxy was a long process but was never considered
something new – orthodoxy was innate. The idea of right and wrong, orthodoxy and
heresy, is attributed to the introduction of monotheism.
Marcion
Living around the second century, Marcion was an intellectual as well as a dualist.
Dualism focuses on the idea of two gods – good (spiritual) and evil (material).
The dualists also believed in reincarnation. If you didn’t live a good life, you
would be reincarnated into a lesser being in your next life. If you did live a good life,
then you would live a non-material, ethereal afterlife. Marcion was a heretic
because he wrote his own version of the Christian bible that only included the
gospels of Paul and Luke. He left out everything else, including the Old Testament.
He viewed the Jewish god, Yahweh, as an evil god because he was material – he
created the world, a material thing! In his mind, Marcion believed that Jesus was the
good God while Yahweh was the evil one.
Montanists
Also during the second century, the montanists were a millennial sect of
Christianity that also encompassed some aspects of dualism. They separated
themselves from the rest of Christianity in that they were all vegetarian, celibate,
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
and even egalitarian. Millennial groups believed in Jesus’ eminent return to earth.
When Jesus would return, there would be a battle between the good and the evil of
the earth. Only 144,000 people would survive, all good, and all would live in
harmony for a thousand years during the Golden Age. Many of their beliefs
stemmed from the Book of the Apocalypse or the Book of Revelations. The
reason they were condemned as heretics was because they accused many of the
clergy as being evil.
Donatists
The Donatists were a sect of Christianity that originated in Northern Africa after
the Diocletian Persecution in 303. They believed that once a priest apostatized,
they could no longer return to Christianity as a practicing priest. Blessings from
priests who later apostatized were also believed to be invalid. The wine and bread
given to represent the blood and body of Christ would not contain his spirit if given
by a sinning priest. The Donatists believed in a Virgin Church. They were deemed
heretical because their ideas would create chaos in Christian society. Where would
people go to get the true divine spirit? The Church clarified that the sacrament
always carried the spirit of Christ within it.
Arius (d. 335)/Arians/Arianism
The belief spread first by Arius (a priest situated in Alexandria) was that Jesus was
God’s first creation. Because Jesus was so perfect, God decided to adopt him as
his own son. This led to the idea that Jesus was not eternal, and since God was
eternal, Jesus must be lesser than god. This idea would also compromise the idea
of monotheism. Arianism spread throughout the empire and posed a problem for
the Church and hence Arius was deemed a heretic.
Council of Nicaea (325)
Convened by Constantine, the council was called in the Eastern part of the Empire
to discuss the problems and disunity of the Empire. It was the first ecumenical
council in which the entire empire was represented. There were 317 bishops
present and as a symbol, the Holy Spirit (part of God) was the 318th seat. The
presence of the Holy Spirit granted authority for the convention. It was here that
the idea of the Holy Trinity was created and added to the Church teachings.
Nicene Creed
Creed comes from the word credo – “I believe.” The Nicene Creed was decided on
at the Council of Nicaea. The Holy Trinity was the belief that there were three
persons in one God: the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit.
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Early Christian Church (II)
Tertullian (d. 225)
An early Christian author, he coined the phrase “the blood of the martyrs is the
seed of the Church.” He was highly educated but rejected Greco-Roman thinking
because it served as detrimental to Christian thought.
Latin Fathers of the Church
The Fathers, also known as Doctors, include St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, St.
Augustine, and Pope Gregory the Great. The Fathers held auctoritas – on a
lesser level than the scriptures of course. The Fathers were all male, obviously, and
this posed problems in creating Christian theology – men were creating the role for
women. The Latin Fathers only applied to the Western part of the empire – as the
Greek Fathers were in the East. The language difference (Latin vs. Greek) is very
drastic.
St. Jerome
Coming from the upper crust of society, the aristocratic linguist (fluent in Greek,
Latin, and later Hebrew) was interested in literature and philosophy – especially
that belonging to the classical genre (for example Cicero). He struggled with
ridding his mind of worldly thoughts and decided to escape from society by
becoming a hermit in the desert near Syria. The point of becoming a hermit is to
rid oneself of sin – sins are social. Jerome was an ascetic or someone who deprives
himself of worldly pleasure. He found that by challenging his mind through learning
that he could ward off sinful thought. He was anti-female due to the fact that he
struggled with celibacy. He wanted all women to become celibate as well and did
not respect those who were not.
Pope Damascus (366-384)
This pope was integral in the canonization of saints from martyrs and he pushed for
the Petrine Doctrine. He addressed all other bishops as his “son” rather than his
“brother.” He assigned the linguist Jerome to translate the Greek and Hebrew bibles
into Latin.
The Vulgate
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
This version of the bible translated by St. Jerome (commissioned by Pope
Damascus) was used throughout the Middle Ages. It was a compilation of the
original Greek and Hebrew bibles. Jerome learned the Hebrew language in the
desert during his hermitage.
St. Ambrose (d. 397)
This aristocrat came from a family of governors and later became Governor of
Northern Italy himself. In the year 374, there was a civil war in Milan due to the
fact that the last bishop had died. This past bishop had been an Arian and the
Milanese people did not want another Arian bishop ruling them. When Ambrose
marched into town to suppress the uprising, the people began to cheer – they
wanted Ambrose to be the Bishop of Milan. Though he was reluctant and deemed
himself unworthy of the position, he became bishop. This was interesting in the fact
that he was not fully Christian at the time – he was waiting to be baptized later in
life. Bishop Ambrose felt that the “bishop was the shepherd of his flock” and
therefore took care of his diocese (the poor, the ill, etc). He was an eloquent speaker
and was not hypocritical in his teachings. He later wrote a manual for all bishops
on how to behave and act.
Theodosius (d. 395)
The orthodox Christian emperor was the last Roman Emperor to keep the empire
together. After his death, his two sons split the empire between east and west. In
392 he established Christianity as the official religion of the empire. He was also
a big supporter of the Petrine Doctrine and supported the Roman bishop over all
of the other minor bishops. He was a great friend of Ambrose but came into conflict
with him after a massacre/execution in Greece. Ambrose plead for Theodosius
to repent and the emperor did repent publicly and proved that no one was above
religious authority.
St. Augustine (d. 430)
The most important of the Latin Fathers of the Church, Augustine is known for his
excessive writings. The only Father that came from modest means, Augustine was
raised in North Africa and was educated in Carthage. Though raised Christian by
his mother Monica (later canonized as a saint), he scoffed at the idea of Jesus and
was very influenced by classical texts. He was really influenced in the method of
rhetoric. Later on he became the Bishop of Hippo (in North Africa) from 395430. He wrote the first known autobiography in the western world called…
Confessions (397)
A revelatory autobiography by St. Augustine, this book recounts his feelings of
pain, anguish, and anxiety and follows his life before he accepts Christianity up until
when he finally accepts Jesus. He was easily tempted by worldly beings – drink and
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
women. He read great works of ancient philosophers such as Cicero. It is not until
he moved to Milan to become a professor of rhetoric that he accepts God. He
hears the beautiful oration of Bishop Ambrose and was convinced that he spoke the
truth. He also heard a voice of a child that told him to “take up and read,” luring
him to open the Gospel of St. Peter.
410 AD
The Visigoth barbarians, under the direction of Alaric, sacked Rome. They were
only storming through and later made their way to the Iberian Peninsula. The main
impact of the violence was the doubt of Christianity. Many pagans within the
western empire believed that the violence was caused by the turn on the Roman
gods. There was overall shock.
City of God
Written by Augustine between from the year 413-426, the City of God was a
reaction to the sack of Rome and the blame put on Christianity. It created a new
idea of history – the Christian philosophy of history. No longer was history
looked at as cyclical (like the Romans and Greeks believed), but history was linear
and importance was given to individual events and people. This gave the idea of
purpose in the individual life – life was lived to get to the afterlife. The City of God
was the opposite of the City of Man. The City of Man was filled with selfish and
narcissistic people while the City of God was filled with people who cared for
humanity.
Original Sin/Grace/Predestination
Original sin originates from the story of Adam and Eve. All humans have an
intrinsic proclivity to sin. Grace is a gift from God and is necessary to have in
order to reach salvation. To receive grace, one must participate in the
sacraments. In Protestant religions that don’t have all of the Catholic sacraments,
grace is freely given to those with faith. Predestination is a belief in religions such
as Calvinism. God knows at all times who will be accepted into heaven and who
will go to hell. There was an idea of elitism in this belief.
St. Benedict (d. 547)
The Church wasn’t very fond of hermit monks because they saw these hermits as a
threat to Church authority. St. Benedict was of the aristocracy and studied in
Rome. He began as a hermit monk. He secluded himself and wore animal skins and
acted very primal – he was once almost killed by hunters! He later founded the first
monastery where monks lived together and lived by rules. He was also a very
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
good monk in that he learned from his mistakes – when he assumed that all people
could live by his strict rules and he was wrong, he changed his regulations.
Monte Cassino (c. 529)
This was the first monastery established by Benedict. Located in a mountain, this
monastery served as a model for all (for example, it had to be hospitable to all
travelers). It was a retreat from society and set rules for monks.
Holy Rule (Rule of St. Benedict)
Developed by St. Benedict at the monastery Monte Cassino, the Holy Rule was
something that all monks had to live by as long as they resided in a monastery. They
took a vow of poverty (no private property), chastity, and obedience (there was
heavy discipline). First year monks were called novitiates. These novitiates were
monitored by more experienced monks. The head of the monastery was the abbot
(derived from the Aramaic/Hebrew word “abba” or “father”).
Secular vs. Religious Clergy
Secular is derived from the Latin word “seculum” which means worldly. The
secular clergy consisted of those who worked within the world (priests, bishops,
etc). Regular means rules. The regular clergy lived apart from the world and lived
according to rules – MONKS!
Conversion of Europe
Barbarian Invasions (300-500)
Barbarians were groups of people who didn’t speak civilized languages – Latin and
Greek. Hence, there were many different barbarian tribes and they originated in
many different areas. The Germanic barbarians pushed down from the area of the
Rhine and Danube frontier of the Roman Empire, originally coming from areas of
Scandinavia. Later on there were also invasions of Islamic groups as well as Persian
groups on the eastern frontier of the empire. This multi-frontier push/invasion was
one factor that led to the disintegration of the Roman Empire. The barbarians
were of two religious groups. They were either pagan or Arian Christian.
Ulfilas (d. 383)
Meaning “little wolf,” Ulfilas was an Arian Christian who had been held captive by
the Goths but who later escaped. He had a calling to return to the barbarian tribe
and spread his Arian Christianity as a missionary. The Goths were illiterate and for
this reason, Ulfilas needed to create a Gothic alphabet and translated the bible.
This was the first Proto-Germanic manuscript. Ulfilas left out some selections from
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
the Old Testament that were extremely violent in an effort to not encourage the
Goths to be any more violent than they already were. When the Goths sought
integration with Christian Europe, they were considered heretics due to their Arian
sect.
Germania (98)
The title, speaking of a multiple variety of Germanic tribes, was the title of one of
Tacitus’ writings. To refresh, Tacitus was a Roman aristocrat who was a pagan and
also a conservative. This book, though pre-barbarian invasion, is an
anthropological survey of the Germanic peoples. He characterizes them physically
and almost raves about their virtues in admiration. Tacitus’ is known to have
disliked the idea of the Roman Emperor having such absolute power. He also did
not like the corruption in the upper crust of society. He admired the military
prowess of the barbarians, their strong fidelity in marriage, and their coming of age
rituals.
Comitatus
A practice in many barbarian tribes, the warrior would give himself up to his
chieftain. In return for his service and manpower, the warrior would receive
weaponry and shelter. This idea brought about the beginnings of feudalism and
symbiotic relationships between upper and lower classes.
Salic Law
A law code set up by the Salian Franks concerning all facets of life. The laws were
male centered and hence the role of women was to have children.
 Compurgation
The process of swearing witnesses which was filled with inconsistencies in
comparison to Roman legal rationality
 Ordeal
A divine principal used in terms of accusation, the accused would be
injured and correct healing would prove innocence. Another example is
throwing the accused in water and if the accused quickly came to the
surface, he would be guilty for the water found him impure.
 Wergeld
The term “were,” means man and the term “geld” means money. The
wergeld is the payment after a crime, almost like a bailout. This was
instated to prevent tribal warfare.
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Huns
Descending from the steppes of Central Asia, the Huns were known to be
extremely violent and frightening. One of the first barbarian invaders, they terrified
the Germanic settlers in Eastern Europe and prompted their invasion of the rest of
Europe. They first conquered the Ostrogoths (the Eastern goths) in 370.
Attila (d. 453)
He is mainly known for his rule over the Hunnic Empire, the empire from which
the invading Huns came. He was mainly set on conquer and invasion, in
comparison to other barbarian leaders who sought arable land for cultivating.
Battle of Châlons (451)
The Battle of Châlons was a battle between the Huns and the Roman army (led
mainly by the Visigothic king Theodoric I). It was a major victory for the Roman
army. Its importance stems in the fact that if the battle had the opposite outcome,
Attila would have taken over all of Western Europe and entered into Gaul.
Visigoths
In the year 376, the Visigoths appealed to the Roman Empire to become part of it.
They were accepted but remained as a minority in both population and in religion as
they were Arian Christians. They were the first full group of barbarians to enter
the empire. They were looking for arable land in order to settle and cultivate a
community, unlike the Huns who were set on conquest. They were given arid land
by the empire and hence became upset and began to rebel. In the year 406, the
Visigoths began to move into the north of the Italian peninsula. At this same time,
Roman troops began to withdraw from the Rhine Valley area in order to deal with
this and other problems in the southern regions. This withdrawal allowed other
barbarian tribes to come into the empire.
Valens (d. 378)
Valens was the emperor to accept the Visigoth community into the empire. One
reason for this may be that he was an Arian Christian himself. He was actually the
Eastern Roman Emperor and was considered the last true Roman.
Battle of Adrianople (378)
The battle was fought between the Romans (in particular the Eastern Romans, led
by Valens) and the Visigoths in an area between modern day Greece and Bulgaria.
The main cause of the battle was Visigothic resentment of the Romans, as they
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
were given poor, arid land to farm. The Visigoths defeated the Romans, and
Valens was killed.
Alaric (d. 410)
The leader of the Visigoths, Alaric had aimed to find arable land for his people to
farm and settle on. He moved the Visigoths down the Italian Peninsula, dying on
the way. On the way, the barbarians sacked Rome. They were unable to enter
North Africa and instead moved into Gaul until they were displaced by Vandals and
landed in Iberia until 711 and the Islamic conquest.
410 AD
The Visigoth barbarians, under the direction of Alaric, sacked Rome. They were
only storming through and later made their way to the Iberian Peninsula. The main
impact of the violence was the doubt of Christianity. Many pagans within the
western empire believed that the violence was caused by the turn on the Roman
gods. There was overall shock.
Vandals
When they invaded, the Vandals went from Gaul, to Southern Iberia (their name
lead to the name of the coast, “vandalus”), and then finally settled in North Africa,
particularly in Carthage. From this point in the Mediterranean, they took control
of trade for the next 100 years and also took over many Mediterranean islands
such as Corsica and Sardinia. In 455 they sacked Rome, similarly to the Visigoths in
410 – not destroying the city, just “vandalizing” it.
Burgundians
Circa 406, this barbarian tribe entered Western Gaul in the Rhone Valley area.
Their name led to the modern day area named Burgundy. They were a minority
group in this region, as the language in this area is known to be a romance language,
originating from Latin.
Lombards
The Lombards moved into the northern region of the Italian peninsula, finally
settling permanently under the rule of Charlemagne. They were a minority group
in this region, as the language in this area is known to be a romance language,
originating from Latin.
Angles/Saxons/Jutes
These barbarian tribes entered the British Isles, or Britannia according to the
Romans, starting in the year 410 when the Roman army withdrew from the area
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
temporarily (never to come back). The tribes led to the names of areas within the
Isles. For example, the modern name England comes from the Angles – Angleland,
England. The Saxons contributed to the naming of areas such as Wessex, Sussex,
and Essex (West Saxon, South Saxon, East Saxon). The barbarian groups here were
majorities and trumped the indigenous population of the time, and hence the
English language is a Germanic language.
Franks
The name “Franks” means free or valorous. They were a Germanic tribe that
differed from the others in that they were religiously pagan. They settled in the
North Eastern part of Gaul, and had their headquarters in Paris (which was
chosen due to religious importance and saints). The name of their “state” was
Francia, later softened to modern day France. They remained in close contact with
neighboring Germanic tribes and populated France through colonization. They
were creating the starts of a nation.
Clovis (r. 481-511)
Clovis’ importance can be found through his name alone, later influencing the name
of many French rulers – CLOVIS, Louis. He became king at the age of 15. He was
very ruthless, clever, and was great on the battlefield. He settled where there was a
Gallo-Roman population (the majority) that was Catholic Christian. He recognized
the hierarchy in terms of church office and being politically astute as he was,
despite his paganism, made friends with the Church. In 493, he married Clotilda
(d. 546) who was from the Burgundian tribe. Though the tribe as a whole was
Arian, her mother was Catholic and so she was raised as a Catholic as well. This
marriage is an example of a dynastic marriage – a marriage made for political and
military purposes. In 496, at a battle against an enemy group, the Alemanni, Clovis
called on Jesus, as he feared his army was losing. As soon as he called on the
Christian God, the enemy forces retreated, and on Christmas day that same year,
Clovis, as well as his soldiers, converted to Catholic Christianity. It was Clotilda,
though, who put the idea of Christianity in his head. Once the boss is converted, the
rest will follow.
Merovingians (481-751)
The dynasty that Clovis belonged to was named after Merovech. Merovech was
both Clovis’ grandfather, and an esteemed river god of the pagan Franks. By
claiming that a divine figure resided in the dynasty’s family tree gave legitimacy to
the thrown.
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Gregory of Tours (c. 594)
A bishop (ecclesiast) and part of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy, Gregory was a
historian who wrote the History of the Franks. He also represents the decline in
Roman culture of the time, as his writings are filled with grammatical errors.
History of the Franks
Gregory of Tours recorded the event of the 496 battle between Clovis and the
Alemanni enemy. The story very similarly compares to Eusebius of Caesarea’s story
of Constantine’s conversion. This is not surprising, as Gregory would have most
likely read Eusebius’ texts. He also mentions Clovis’ conquests into the rest of Gaul:
defeating the Visigoths in 507 and by his death conquering 2/3 of modern day
France.
St. Patrick (431)
Though there are many accounts of different Patricks in Ireland as missionaries, we
consider only the most known Patrick and deem him a saint. To the Romans,
Ireland was called Hibernia. The Romans never made it to Ireland and hence
Ireland remained isolated. St. Patrick was a Celt from southwest Britain. He was a
Christian (his dad was a deacon, and his grandfather a priest). He was captured by
pirates and brought to Ireland (according to the Confessions of St. Patrick), forced to
work on the fields. After escaping captivity, he felt that he was being called back to
Ireland to convert the pagans there. Before his return, he became a bishop, and
brought episcopal Christianity to Ireland. This system of bishops, however, did
not work as the system relied on cities and Ireland was purely rural. Instead, the
Irish took up monasticism and asceticism. They learned Latin and Greek in order
to read manuscripts. They held other practices (private confession vs. public)
than the continental (Catholic) Christians, and had a different calendar. Ireland had
a high level of education and intellectual activity as compared to the rest of the
declining empire.
Bede (d. 735)
He was a Benedictine monk who was also a chronologist. He recorded historical
events, and even used the idea of separating events into BC and AD. He was one of
the more intellectual writers of his day. He wrote…
Ecclesiastical History of the English People
In this book, Bede records the religious, Christian events of the English people.
Within the selection is included the conversion of King Edwin of Northumbria to
Christianity (through the advice of his priest Coifi). He also records the events of
the Synod of Whitby in which King Oswy decides between the Irish Christian and
Catholic Christian faiths.
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Gregory the Great (590-604)
Coming from the aristocracy, Gregory was well educated for his time (though not
nearly as intelligent and intellectual as those during the time of Ambrose, Jerome,
and Augustine). He became a monk and only left the monastery (that he was a
benefactor to) because the pope at that time called him to Constantinople to
negotiate with the Eastern Empire for aid against the Lombards. Gregory never
wanted to be pope and actually tried to avoid it, but he was anointed pope
nonetheless. He was one of the Latin Fathers of the Church and was highly
involved with the conversion of England. He assumed secular responsibility in
Rome and the surrounding areas. He helped the poor. He wrote a manual for
bishops to follow (the Pastoral Care – see sources). For future medieval students,
he summarized theology such as St. Augustine’s writings.
Augustine of Canterbury (597)
Pope Gregory the Great sent him to England (particularly Kent) as a missionary. He
had been the abbot of the monastery of St. Andrew in Rome. The name Canterbury
means “City of Kent.” The king of Kent at the time was Ethelbert (d. 616). Though
he was a pagan, he was married to Bertha (d. 612) who was a Frank and a
Catholic, a descendent of Clovis and Clotilda. This is yet another example of a
dynastic marriage. In 597, Augustine of Canterbury converted King Ethelbert
and his fellow men to Catholic Christianity on Christmas day.
Principle of Adaptation
This principle is from Pope Gregory the Great in response to some worries on the
part of Augustine of Canterbury. The recently converted pagans quickly reverted
back to their pagan practices as soon as they were out of the Church’s sight. Pope
Gregory said that conversion couldn’t be done by force, and the pagan converts had
to be eased into their new religion. On the sites of old pagan temples and altars,
all idols should be destroyed, but in their place, a church should be raised.
Synod of Whitby (664)
Synod is the Greek word for council. This synod was held due to the collision of
Irish and Catholic missionaries in Northumbria. The Irish Christian King
Oswy (d. 670) of Northumbria was married to a woman from Kent (and hence, a
Catholic Queen). This led to problems in terms of celebration of holidays. At this
synod, it was concluded that Oswy would choose Catholic Christianity. The main
reason had to do with the afterlife. According to the gospels and the Petrine
Doctrine, St. Peter held the keys to heaven. The pope was working by the will of
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
St. Peter. Therefore, Catholic Christianity was chosen. This religious synod and
its outcome drew England into the rest of Western Europe.
Islam
Muslim
Islam means “submission to Allah” and the individual Muslim means “one who
submits to the will of Allah.”
Arabian Peninsula
This peninsula is the largest in the world; almost four times the size of modern day
France. Notation of Arabs in this land date back to the Jewish bible and before. It
was an important land because of its location between Asia and the Mediterranean.
In the 6th century, it was through this peninsula that the most important routes ran
through. In terms of demography, Bedouin tribes that were polytheistic dominated
it.
Mecca
The birthplace of Muhammad, Mecca was a very important trade stop on route
through the peninsula. In the 6th century, it had an economic upsurge. It had an
important religious significance even before the introduction of Islam as many
Bedouin tribes took pilgrimages there to visit the Kaaba. There were Jews and
Christians here because of its influential location, and these people may have
influenced Muhammad when it came to monotheism and preceding prophets. When
Muhammad started preaching Islam, the people of Mecca felt threatened. They
made a lot of money because of the polytheistic pilgrims, and thought that the
preaching of a monotheistic religion would hurt their profit.
Kaaba
A cube right outside of the city of Mecca, the Kaaba was a pilgrimage sight for
many polytheistic Bedouin tribes. Inside the Kaaba were 300+ idols representing
deities of many of the different tribes. One of the idols included happened to be
named “Allah.” The Bedouins brought a lot of commerce to Mecca and because of
their pilgrimage, bought many religious related items during their stay.
Muhammad (571-632)
Born in Mecca, Muhammad (“highly praised”) belonged to a local polytheistic
tribe called the Kuraysh. His father (interestingly named Abba-Allah) had died
before he was born, and his mother died when he was six, leaving him to be raised
by his extended family. Being an orphan early in life really influenced some of the
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
things mentioned in the Quran regarding orphans and needy children. At a very
young age he had to fend for himself and worked as a merchant to make profit.
Because of this, Muhammad remained relatively uneducated. This seems to be a
good thing, on his part, because the less educated one is, the less corruption one
brings to religion. He never truly became wealthy. He joined a trading company
that was run by a woman named Khadijah, and later married her. In the year 610,
he received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. The angel told Muhammad
to recite/repeat after him – the beginnings of the Quran. The story of Muhammad’s
revelation is very similar to the story of revelations had by Saint Paul. He was
encouraged to follow his revelations by his wife Khadijah and began preaching to
the fringes of society. As mentioned before, he was seen as an enemy to commerce
in Mecca and in the year 622 left for Medina. He returned to Mecca in 630 when
he destroyed all the idols in the Kaaba and finally brought Islam to the Bedouin
tribes. This transition from the polytheistic Kaaba to the Islamic Kaaba harkens to
the advice given to Augustine of Canterbury by Pope Gregory the Great.
Kuraysh
The Arabian Peninsula was filled with many different tribes or clans, including the
tribe of the Kuraysh. Muhammad belonged to this lesser tribe, and was even
lesser himself by being on the outskirts of it himself. They were known for their
religious rituals and some were even in charge of the Kaaba.
Khadijah (d. 619)
A wealthy, elite widow and owner of a trading company, she recognized
Muhammad’s talented ability in trade. At this time, women had more freedom than
they did after the introduction of Islam (though originally there are many things
instated in Islamic practice to protect women). She proposed to Muhammad for
marriage against the advice of her tribesmen. They were married, exclusively, for
25 years until her death. She was a main driving force in the preaching of Islam as
she encouraged Muhammad to follow his revelations.
Hegira (Hijra) 622
Because he was seen as an enemy to the commerce of Mecca, Muhammad fled on
September 24 to avoid persecution. At this point, Khadijah had died and he no
longer had a foothold in the elite society of Mecca. The word Hegira actually means
“flight.” After the death of his first wife, Muhammad begins to practice polygamy
and his harem grows. This time is extremely important in Islamic history, and is
marked so as being the first year on the Islamic calendar!
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Medina (Yathrib)
To the northwest of Mecca, this city was an oasis that was inhabited by many
settling nomadic tribes. Like Mecca, Medina had a noticeable population of
Christians and Jews, who worked as artisans and farmers – cultivating the land
and making it as arable as possible. There were conflicts between the tribes in
Yathrib at this time because of the increased population, and the scarcity of water
and irrigation. Muhammad was invited to help fix the problem and conflict. He
becomes a political as well as a religious leader here, in the “City of the Prophet,”
and this forms a theocracy. At this point, prayer was directed towards Jerusalem
(as opposed to Mecca).
Quran
Defined as the “recitation,” this sacred text is the word that Muhammad had
spoken during all of his revelations. Similar to Judaism and Christianity, the
introduction of a sacred text kept the religion alive as compared to disappearing
religions of the time that had no written core. The text also brought about a certain
authority. The Quran was written within 25 years of Muhammad’s death, unlike the
Jewish and Christian texts that didn’t solidify for several centuries. The Quran is
divided into 114 chapters or “surahs.” To get anything spiritual out of the text, it
must be read in Arabic. Because of this, often times Arabs take an elitist position in
the religion. Many themes repeat themselves in the Quran such as an intricately
described afterlife, and the idea that life is a test.
Iman (beliefs)
This is a theology, which is the more intricate and religious detail of Islam. Most
people aren’t as in touch with this aspect of religion in general.
Ibadat (obligations, rituals)
Rituals and traditions keep communities together and bring people together.
Traditions such as rights of passage reinsure and reinstate the Islamic religion as
well as many others.
Jihad
Tribal warfare, originally conducted in order to seek revenge on Mecca, is
described in the Quran. There are two types of jihad. The greater jihad is the
inner struggle that one has with oneself in becoming the best Muslim one can be.
Lesser jihad is a defending or propagation of the faith, and is usually done through
warfare and violence.
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Hajj
Every Muslim must try to make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca, specifically to
touch the Kaaba, in his or her lifetime.
Ramadan
This is a period of 30 days (a month) in which all Muslims must fast from sunrise to
sunset each day. This is the month that Muhammad received his first revelation.
One is exempt from the fast if one is traveling, but must instead fast the next
month.
Five Pillars of Islam
 Profession of Faith
Acknowledging Allah as the one and only God, and acknowledging
Muhammad as the final prophet



Prayer
5 times a day, facing Mecca, ritualistic behaviors (washing) beforehand, holy
day is Friday
Pilgrimage (HAJJ)
Alms
Be kind to those in need and give charity (similar to Jewish and Christian
practice)
 Fasting on Ramadan
Carolingians
Merovingians (481-751)
The dynasty that Clovis belonged to was named after Merovech. Merovech was
both Clovis’ grandfather, and an esteemed river god of the pagan Franks. By
claiming that a divine figure resided in the dynasty’s family tree gave legitimacy to
the thrown.
Carolingians (751-911)
Though Charles Martel is part of the family line, the Carolingian dynasty does not
start until Pepin the Short becomes King of the Franks in 751. The Carolingians
came from an aristocratic family and before becoming legitimate kings, held
authority and power over the Merovingian “do nothing kings.”
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Charles Martel (714-741)
During the eighth century, the Merovingian power, the monarchial power, in
Francia was decreasing. This was due to split succession with sons, as well as the
fact that monarchs would give land to the aristocracy in return for loyalty and
service. The latter gave more power to the aristocracy, and the former split up the
centralized dynasty. There was now a split between Neustria, Austrasia, and
Burgundy. The Carolingians were an aristocratic family that exerted true power
in Austrasia, and in 687 took control of Neustria in the Battle of Tertry under
Pepin of Heristal (680-714). Charles Martel, then came to power in the year 714,
after Pepin of Heristal, and in 732 restrained the Arab advance into Europe at the
Battle of Tours-Poitiers. He extended the boundaries of the Frankish state
drastically. He introduced the cavalry and brought the stirrup into popular use.
Battle of Tours (732)
Up until this point, the Islamic forces of the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) had
spread vastly through the Middle East, into Asia, Africa, and even the Iberian
Peninsula. In 711 Al-Walid I conquered al-andalus, now Andalucia in Spain. The
Battle of Tours took place in France, and marked the furthest point of Islamic
invasion in Europe. Charles Martel and his army defeated the Islamic forces.
Tours was an important religious center with gold and silver.
Pepin the Short (741-768)
Similarly to Charles Martel, Pepin the Short (his son) began his reign as a powerful
aristocrat, but not a monarch. His brother Carloman did not pose a threat to his
power as he retired to Monte Cassino as a monk. In 751 at Soissons he was
anointed as King by Pope Zacharius I (741-752), creating the Franco-Papal
Alliance. The pope needed military aid to help secure Italy from the Lombard
threat. He no longer could rely on Byzantine forces (because of the dispute over
icons, as well as Byzantine preoccupation with Arab threats), so he turned to the
Franks.
Zacharius I (741-752)
He was actually a Greek pope sitting on the Roman papal throne. He was very
involved with events taking place in Germany and France, and helped create the
Franco-Papal Alliance. He encouraged the overthrow of the Merovingian
Monarchy by anointing Pepin the Short as King of Francia. He also was very
involved with Saint Boniface and the missions to England.
Stephen II (752-757)
The pope succeeding Zacharius I was most known for increasing the separation
between the Roman Papacy and the Byzantine Emperors. He relied heavily on the
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Franco-Papal Alliance for military aid against the Lombards. In 754 and 756, Pepin,
through military aid, gave the papacy the Papal States – independent and ruled by
the Pope. Now the Pope had both religious and secular power in the center of Italy.
Donation of Pepin
Pepin the Short, through the Franco-Papal Alliance, gave Pope Stephen II the
Papal States. The pope himself independently ruled this land. The pope had both
religious and secular power in the center of Italy because of the donation.
Donation of Constantine
This forged “donation” came about around the year 740, and gave the pope the
imperial crown and gave him the power to rule the entire west. This created
problems later on between the Pope’s authority and Monarchial or Kingly
authority.
Gregorian Revolution
Charlemagne (768-814)
A strong conqueror and military man, Charlemagne inherited the name patricius
romanorum from his father Pepin the Short. He brought a lot to his kingdom,
especially in that he conquered many lands. In 774 he defeated the Lombards,
giving him the name King of the Franks & Lombards. He also moved into Bavaria
and the eastern Slavic lands, into Austria (Ostomark), and to the south of the
Pyrenees (to prevent any future Muslim invasion). He also conquers the Saxons
and converts them to Christianity by the 800s. A lot of his empire is highly
suggestive of the Western Roman Empire (excluding the British Isles and the
entirety of the Iberian peninsula).
Regnum Europae
Chroniclers termed the Western section of the Roman Empire as the Kingdom of
Europe, characterizing it as a mixture of Germanic, Romantic, and Christian
cultures.
Einhard (d. 840)
A lot about Charlemagne is known today because of this important biographer. In
Life of Charlemagne, we hear about his cultural exploits in education.
Charlemagne (also known as Charles the Magnificent/Great) knew both Latin and
Greek, though he was more proficient in the former. He was a great reader and his
favorite book was St. Augustine’s City of God. He trained all of his children, both
sons and daughters, in the liberal arts. He was never able to master the skill of
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
writing. Einhard also writes about Charlemagne’s coronation as Emperor. He
says that Charlemagne was surprised by the sudden anointment, but many scholars
believe this could not have been the case.
Leo III (795-816)
At this time in Christian history, aristocratic nobles in Rome usually chose the Pope.
Because of this, there were often conflicting parties in the city. Leo III fell prey to his
opponents who accused him of sinful acts such as adultery. There were times
(such as 799) when he was mugged and kidnapped. He turned to Charlemagne
for help.
800
Charlemagne went to Rome to help reinstate Leo III as Pope and to protect him
from his opponents. Leo III swore his innocence on the Vulgate Bible. On Christmas
day that same year (800), Charlemagne was imperially coronated emperor by
Leo III. According to his biographer Einhard, Charlemagne was taken by surprise,
but this most likely was not the case. This event also set a precedent that all
imperial coronations must come from the Pope to be legitimate.
Pornocracy (904-964)
This was the lowest point in the history of the papacy. There was a rumor that
women (such as Theodora and Marozia) from the aristocracy were very influential
in the church due to sexual favors and such. Because monks wrote history, perhaps
the corruption of the church was just put on the women as scapegoats. It is during
this time that the myth of the female Pope Joan came about, possibly another
scapegoat.
John XII (955-964)
An example of the corruption in the papacy during this period, Pope John XII was
only 16 years old when he came into power. He was interested in women and
drink; he didn’t like mass and was known for sleeping through it, and got into a lot
of trouble. He also set the precedent for changing names when becoming Pope.
Otto I “The Great” (936-973)
At this point in history, the Carolingians had dwindled to nothingness due to split
inheritance, and Germany was a growing power. Otto I was a strong military man,
and helped to consolidate and defend Germany. He began the practice of lay
investiture in order to control the churches in his realm.
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Battle of Lechfeld (955)
Otto I fought the Magyars, a new people from the Asiatic Steppes. These Magyars,
also known as Hungarians, were forced to settle in present day Hungary. It is
because of this battle that Otto I received the name “The Great.”
962
On February 2, John XII named Otto I as emperor. This was an example of sacred
kingship, similar to that of the Carolingians. Otto I was a reformer and once
emperor, removed the corrupt John XII from the papacy in 964. It is here that Otto I
claimed authority over choosing the Pope (though this was never actually reality for
emperors later on). German emperors often removed popes that they saw were
unfit for the job.
Cluny (910)
Duke William IV of Aquitane, forming a monastery, turned over a village to
reform monks. The Duke issued a charter stating that the monastery would be free
from secular interference. The monastery was established under the Rule of St.
Benedict. Because so many monasteries were not living up to the Benedictine Rule,
Cluny aimed to be a role model for other monasteries to follow. Their “daughter
monasteries” became known as Cluniac monasteries. The head abbot at Cluny
oversaw them. Each branch was head by a prior – only one abbot existed in this
monastic order, and he resided at Cluny. It is from Cluny that many of the ideologies
for the reform movement came.
Simony
The practice of buying and selling church offices was one of the corruptive practices
that reformers aimed to get rid of.
Clerical Concubinage
Monks were celibate, and in writing, priests were meant to be too. Many reformers
believed that priestly marriage created a conflict of interest. Priests with sons
would turn over their parish/church lands as inheritance, and henceforth, the
Church would lose its lands. Priests were meant to be wed to the church only.
Lay Investiture
Kings and emperors and other powerful men would invest bishops into office by
giving them a ring and staff, spiritual and religious symbols. This secular
involvement in religious affairs was one of the main reasons for the reform
movement.
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History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Leo IX (1049-1054)
Bishop Bruno was from Alsace-Lorrain. He was German and because of this, was
not so involved with the local corruption in Rome. Henry III, the German emperor,
appointed him as Pope – Leo IX. As a monk from Cluny, Leo was a reformer
aimed at eliminating simony and priestly marriage. He was the first pope to travel
throughout Western Christendom, creating an international papacy. He also had
legates, papal representatives or ambassadors, which would go all over
Christendom to enforce reforms.
1054
Leo IX sends one of his legates, Humbert of Silva, to Constantinople to insist that
the Byzantines see things the way that the Pope does – in other words, to
acknowledge the Petrine Doctrine. Humbert delivers this message in a disrespectful
manner, and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicates the Pope and
everyone who follows him. Humbert retaliates with a message from the Pope that
the Patriarch and everyone who follows him is excommunicated from the Catholic
Church. This marks the Eastern Schism.
1059

College of Cardinals
Before this point, there was no set way of becoming Pope. Deacons could
elect you, an emperor could select you, or even the populous could choose.
This was the first set way to elect the Pope and would be the only way to
become a legitimate pope from here on out. Only fellow churchmen,
specifically cardinals, could participate. A 2/3 majority was necessary.

Norman Alliance
The Normans were thought of as the most accomplished fighters. Because
of this they were often hired as mercenaries. After coming back from
fighting holy wars, they settled in Southern Italy. They moved north,
conquering land as they went, up until the Papal States. The Pope grew
nervous about the Norman proximity and assembled an army against them,
but was obviously defeated. In response to the defeat, the Pope agreed to
create an alliance between the two parties in return for a feudal contract of
military service. This alliance would prove helpful to the papacy because the
Normans were Catholic and Western, and having conquered Southern Italy,
displaced many Eastern-oriented people.
Gregory VII (1073-1085)
Hildebrand (maiden name) was a monk and a radical reformer. He was present
in creating the College of Cardinals, and was also present in the formation of the
Norman Alliance. He came to Rome as a reformer with Leo IX. He had such an
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Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
influence in church reform that the reform movement, or the Gregorian
Revolution, was named after him. When he became pope, he did not do so through
the College of Cardinals, and for this reason, was very hesitant and unwilling. His
enemies used this fact, that he didn’t follow the new law of how to become pope,
often.
Dictatus Papae (1075)
First of all, see sources. This source is not a church doctrine instated by Pope
Gregory VIII but was a papal program or agenda to create a papal monarchy.
Henry IV (1056-1106)
Henry was King of Germany and inherited the throne at a young age, not really
coming of age until 1073. In 1076 he was in a position to challenge Pope Gregory
through a letter about the practice of lay investiture. The pope had suspended
the office of bishops that were not ordained by Church, but rather by the king – a
secular man. This challenge and letter ended with excommunication for Henry IV.
When one is excommunicated, one has no access to the sacraments. The people of
Henry’s kingdom were advised not to follow him any longer, and because of this,
Henry had to appeal to the pope at…
Canossa (1077)
Henry IV went to the Castle at Canossa, in Tuscany, to appeal to Pope Gregory VII
to be welcomed back into the church. He arrived in penitential garb and stood in
the snow for three days until the pope agreed to hear his confession. It is a
fundamental responsibility of a priest to hear a confession, and though the pope did
not want to for political reasons, spiritually he had to. The excommunication was
removed. This event shows that everyone was dependent on the church, even
kings (and later emperors).
Crusades
Just War
The Christians were originally a pacifist people, but once they grew to be the
majority in Europe, they had to figure out some way to justify warfare. St.
Augustine came up with the argument that a justifiable war is a war that is
defensive. A Christian cannot offensively attack another person, but can defend
himself. The term “defensive” was taken loosely as the First Crusade was
considered a defensive war because the Muslims had taken Jerusalem (450 years
earlier).
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Holy War
The Crusades were the first and only wars sanctioned by the Church and the pope.
The Church and pope are representatives of God, and because the knights were
fighting for the Church, they were in turn fighting for God. These fighters were
called Militia Christi.
Feudal Aristocracy
This was the main population who went out and waged war. They were knights
with cavalry. There were infantrymen to help support these aristocrats, but
overall, because of the expense of horses, knights had to be of some sort of wealth.
They were extremely well trained. Boys of aristocratic blood would first become
pages, and then squires (trained fighters to assist professional knights). Later, at
the age of 21, these boys would officially become knights. Because population was
growing at this time of the Middle Ages, newly knighted men lacked a fief and would
participate in private warfare for land. The Church became involved as they
eliminated private warfare (or at least in theory trying to) and had knights perform
special services for the church. Any important member of the aristocracy claimed
ancestral connection to Charlemagne.
Peace of God
This was the Church’s first involvement in France. The idea was to focus mainly on
eliminating private warfare and the harming of non-combatants (civilians,
clergy, farmers, etc). The Church may have condemned these actions and they were
prohibited in theory, but of course there was minor continuance of private war.
Truce of God
This was focusing more on when the military could fight or not. It was forbidden to
fight on holy days, as everyone should be in Church. There were specific days
proscribed for fighting. At one point, fighting wasn’t allowed between Wednesday
and Sunday.
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a re-conquest of the Iberian Peninsula during the second half
of the 10th century. The Church was involved and supported the movement, and
Papal Banners were used in many of the battles. Muslim powers were declining
at this time in the peninsula and it was because of this that the Christians had a
chance at victory.
Seljuk Turks
The Seljuk Turks came from the steppes of Asia, similar to the Huns, but from the
area of modern day Turkistan. They began moving into the area of modern day Iran,
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
and in the 10th century converted to Islam. They began expanding further in the 11th
century and in 1071 the started moving into the area of Armenia.
Battle of Manzikert (1071)
This was a battle between the Seljuk Turks and the Byzantines. The Turks
destroyed the Byzantines, which was a major shock. The Turks were moving into
Asia Minor, which was an important region for the Byzantines as they drew many
of their soldiers from there. The Seljuk Turks also took Jerusalem at this time,
which effected Christian pilgrims (significant because Christians originated from
the Jewish people who were originally nomadic). At this point, the Byzantine
Emperor Michael Doukas appealed to Pope Gregory VII for help, but because the
pope was preoccupied with lay investiture issues with Henry IV, he couldn’t divert
his attention.
Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118)
The Byzantine Emperor, he appealed to the Pope for aid. This was significant
because the Pope was the only universally recognized figure in the entire West.
He thought it was good to attack the Muslims at this point when they were weak –
they would have the best opportunity of success.
Urban II (1088-1118)
This pope was one of the reform popes and was a Cluniac monk. He was clever
and wasn’t part of the local Italian aristocracy, but rather came from France. In
1095, Emperor Alexius appealed to Urban for help against the Muslims in the east.
Urban thought it would be beneficial to all to aid their Byzantine neighbors and
went to France to rally knights together (as the stronger knights were located in
France, not Italy).
Council of Clermont (1095)
This council strengthened the power of the Papacy by getting a large part of the
populous excited about the Crusades. The council was held in south central France
on November 27th. Urban appealed to all bishops to bring well-trained men with
them. Urban, a Frenchman himself spoke to the French people, initially buttering
them up. He stated that he only wanted knights on the battlefield – no women or
clergy. One of the reasons for this was to remove the problematic and violent
knights from Western Christendom. There were women on the crusades who
acted as prostitutes. The obligation to the Lord was greater than any other
obligation. It was God’s will for the men to fight – “deus vult.” The pope promised
protection of land while the knights were away, and freed all participants from
debt. He also gave…
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Plenary Indulgences
The term plenary means, “full.” It was believed at this point that when one dies, one
doesn’t go directly to heaven due to sin that wasn’t forgiven. Because of this, one
entered purgatory to repent for those sins. By going on the crusades, all sins were
removed and if killed, the fighter would go straight to heaven.
Peter the Hermit/Walter the Penniless
These were some of the leaders of the Popular Crusade. The popular crusades
accompanied each of the legitimate and authorized crusades, but consisted of the
poor and general religious extremists. Urban II was specific in wanting only
knights, but there was no way to stop the general populous from becoming involved.
Peter was a monk who believed that the Crusades were something made for him.
He preached to the general populous and even claimed that he had a letter signed by
Jesus condoning his preaching. He also claimed ancestral connection to John the
Baptist. The popular crusades were the beginning of pogrom-like Jewish
persecution. When the popular crusade first entered Constantinople, the
Emperor attempted to make them wait for the true crusaders, but they raised hell
and Alexius let them get slaughtered by the Turks.
First Crusade (1096-1099)
The people who participated in this papal sanctioned crusade were princes and
nobility – no kings. The Arabs had taken Jerusalem in 637, but it was now that the
crusaders aimed at taking it back. This was the one overtly successful crusade out
of all of them. Though there was a lot of bloodshed and a lack of communication
between the different factions, they were successful in conquering the crusader
states – most notably Jerusalem. The crusades were seen as armed pilgrimages
or controlled violence directed toward the infidel.
1099
In July of the final year of the First Crusade, they successfully captured Jerusalem.
Italian merchants at Yaffa aided them. They slaughtered all of the inhabitants in
Jerusalem – Muslims and Jews, women and children. This was seen as righteous
revenge for corrupting the holy city. The crusaders took over the Principality of
Antioch, the County of Edessa, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of
Jerusalem – the latter having control over the others.
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099)
This land was only 100 miles wide at its largest point. They feared when the
Muslims might cooperate again and push them into the Mediterranean. They also
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
feared the new crusaders who might create turmoil in the area. The Kingdom was
established during the First Crusade.
Second Crusade (1147-1148)
This crusade was sparked by the loss of the County of Edessa to Zangi of Mosul in
1144. This was a distinctly unsuccessful crusade with the leadership of King Louis
VII of France (1137-1180) and King/HRE Conrad III of Germany (1137-1152).
Louis was very eager to go on the crusade; one reason may have been to get away
from his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204) who ended up joining him anyway
(later their marriage was annulled). Conrad was not extremely excited to go on the
crusade and would have rather remained to govern his land, but he was almost
forced to go by the preaching of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Conrad led his army
over land, and many of the Germans were destroyed before ever reaching the Holy
Land. Louis led his army by boat. The goal was to conquer Damascus, which
seemed like a bad idea because Damascus was an ally of the crusaders. They
failed.
1187
Jerusalem fell to the Muslims under Saladin (d. 1193). Saladin was a man of his
word, a gentleman, and was a very strong ruler. This led to the events of the…
Third Crusade (1189-1193)
This crusade is also known as the Crusade of the Kings because it was led by
Frederick Barbarossa the HRE and King of Germany (1152-1190), Philip
Augustus II of France (1180-1223), and Richard the Lion-Hearted of England
(1189-1199). Barbarossa drowned on his way to the Holy Land as he crossed a
river with a strong current. When he died, many of his knights turned back. Philip
did participate minimally when he helped to besiege Acre but he returned to
France soon after, as he was not too eager to be fighting. He would rather focus on
getting land back from England. Richard took the crusade the furthest, and was
able to re-conquer important cities on the coast, as well as create a treaty with
Saladin for the protection of Christian pilgrims. That being said, the treaty would
have been possible through negotiations and a crusade was not necessary. This was
most probably the largest of the crusades.
Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
This expedition never made it to the Holy Land. Innocent III (1198-1216)
preached this crusade. The plan was to go by ship to the Holy Land but because the
crusades were no longer popular, there were not enough knights to fill up all the
ships that were asked of. The Venetian ship builders agreed to let them pay less
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
for less ships if the crusaders were to conquer Zara for them, another important
port city that had been taken from the Venetians. The crusaders decided they would
do this, and because they were attacking other Christians, the pope
excommunicated them. The crusaders then entered Constantinople to aid the
emperor-to-be, but then realized they could take over the city themselves – and
hence, the whole of Byzantium. They sacked Constantinople, stealing and looting,
and ultimately destroying many artifacts. Although the Pope was originally not
happy about this, he later lifted the excommunication as there was no brief unity
between Eastern and Western Christendom. This gave the pope more power,
until 1261 when the Byzantines took Constantinople back.
Children’s Crusade (1212)
It was believed that the failures of the previous crusades were due to the overall
sinful nature of the men who were fighting. It was thought that if perhaps
children would fight, their purity and innocence would lead them to victory. The
children from Germany thought that the Mediterranean Sea would open up for them
and allow them to walk to the Holy Land – they all drowned. The French children
were offered free passage by Italian merchants, but were ultimately taken to the
coast of North Africa and sold into slavery.
The Papacy
Innocent III (November 1198-1216)
This pope was elected into papal office at the age of 37 years at a very pivotal point
in the history of the church. With the growth of population, there was an increase in
heresy as well as problems within the church. There was a need for a dynamic and
powerful pope, instead of the usual humble pope that the cardinals usually elected.
Innocent III was a lawyer pope and studied theology at the University of Paris and
canon law at the University of Bologna. He wrote multiple theological treatises
before he became pope. He exerted the most influence of all popes before and after
him, and represented the highest point in the history of the papacy. He believed that
he was above all other man, and that he was the Vicar of Christ. He and all popes
are representatives of God and Christ on earth.
Conti
This aristocratic family in Italy exerted a lot of influence in the papacy. There
were 8 Conti popes that were elected to the papal throne. Innocent III was one of
the Conti popes.
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Sun/Moon Analogy
“Now just as the moon derives its light from the sun and is indeed lower than it in
quantity and quality, in position and in power, so too the royal power derives the
splendor of its dignity from the pontifical authority” (Pope Innocent III to the nobles
of Tuscany in 1198)
Ratione Peccati
Literally translated as “reason of sin,” the church was entitled through the
permission of the pope, to involve itself in state affairs when there were sinful
actions taking place. Sin was always involved in war, and this way, the church was
always involved in war as well. The church created a feudal relationship between
itself and secular powers. Kings, princes, and nobility formed the vassal class in the
feudal relationship, and were subordinate to the church (the lord). The church had
already created such relationships between itself and the HRE, England, Sweden,
Denmark, Jerusalem, Constantinople (until 1267), and various other regions.
Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
This council lasted only three weeks and can be argued to be the most important
council in the history of the Catholic Church. Over 1200 representatives were
present, including over 400 important bishops, over 800 abbots and priors, and
various representatives from important states. Pope Innocent III called the council
with all issues solved on his own. There was no argumentation or debate and the
council was only a formality in the matter of approval. All of the loose strands of the
church were brought together. The seven sacraments were defined and were
needed to receive grace – the church was a necessary intermediary. It was
necessary to confess and receive the Eucharist at least once a year. Approval of
relics, sainthood, and new monastic orders had to be approved through Rome.
Priests were no longer allowed to participate in Germanic trials such as ordeal,
and all priests must properly be invested. Innocent III was an advocate of Roman
law and the Fourth Lateran Council showed how the church was trying to replicate
Roman imperial rule – centralized and one-man rule.
Canon 68
All non-Christians must wear distinctive garb. In the case of Jews in the
Rhineland region, they were forced to wear yellow badges. This canon heightened
anti-Semitism in Europe, though this was never Innocent’s intent.
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Medieval Universities
Monastic Schools
These schools were mostly located in the countryside because monks were usually
secluded people who tended to retreat from society and the cities. These schools
were in monasteries, and though they were open to non-monks, most students were
interested in a monastic life
Municipal Schools
During the 11th and 12th centuries in Northern Italy, these schools were semisecular. Often times, these schools led to the growth of universities in southern
Europe.
Cathedral Schools
These schools were located in northern cities and were run outside of Cathedrals by
bishops. This was the basis of northern universities.
Universitas
Translated as “association” or “corporation,” this word usually referred to the
collection of any type of guild – for example: carpenters. Later on, this was used to
describe collections of students (student guilds). These student collections were
formed because of their economic power in cities. Prices for foreign or traveling
students were higher and therefore they needed to form a collective.
University of Bologna
This university is located in Northern Italy and is the model for future universities
in Southern Europe. Students traveled from all over to come and listen to lectures
on law as Roman law was having a revival. The students here were often times
older because they already had a basic liberal arts education. Law was the focus at
this university because with the economic renaissance of the time, law became
important. All classes were held in Latin. The student requirements were as
follows:
 Literacy in Latin (reading and writing)
 Male
 Need to be able pay (middle class and lower aristocracy)
The students in southern universities had more power over their instructors or
masters. The school calendar was 7 hours per day, 6 days per week, and 11
months per year.
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
University of Paris
This university was the basic model for all northern European universities as well as
American universities. It evolved out of the Cathedral of Notre Dame. It was
supported by both the secular state and church, and students took minor orders in
the church. They swore oaths of celibacy. The benefit of their church office was that
they were able to avoid certain fees and military services. Most students here were
undergraduates at the faculty of arts.
Faculties
A faculty is a division or portion of a university – similar to a department. To be
called a university, there must be at least one upper level faculty (law, medicine,
theology).
 Arts
this division of education was specifically for undergraduate students
(usually around the age of 15). It took 5 to 6 years to complete the study and
at the end, students would receive a bachelor degree.
 Law
This was the most popular division. It was also one of the upper level
divisions. It took around 6 years to complete this field of study, and at the
end, the student would receive a PhD.
 Medicine
this division was second popular in the upper level section and took 8 years
to complete.
 Theology
this was the least popular and most difficult course of study to complete, for
it took 12 years to receive a PhD.
Chancellor
The Chancellor was the head of the office of chancery in the Cathedral. This office
was in charge for official documents (made official by the official seal). This
ecclesiastical figure issued the degrees at the University of Paris. In modern
universities today, occasionally the chancellor will be called a “rector.”
Benefit of Clergy
Students at the University of Paris were awarded the status of a clergyman when
they entered the university. The students were given church offices and were able
to gain mobility in the church. Penalties in the ecclesiastical court were less harsh
than those in civil court.
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages
Robert de Sorbon (c. 1258)
From the upper nobility, Robert was chaplain to the king. He took a piece of
property from the area of the university and donated a building to theology
students to live in rent-free. This was the establishment of the first college.
Students put together in one building became very popular and proliferated through
all universities. Students were more easily supervised in these conditions.
Peter Abelard (d. 1142)
He was the most famous of all university masters and was the most popular
among students. He was very young and taught in an unconventional manner.
Many masters disliked him for his popularity and often pushed him out of
universities because of his monopoly over students. He turned to tutoring.
Historia Calamitatum
This was the second known autobiography in history written by Peter Abelard.
In it he discussed the calamities of his life. The following is a specific story he
recounts:
Heloise
She was the niece of the priest of Notre Dame in Paris. She was very intellectual,
but because she was a woman, was unable to learn at a university. Her uncle hired
Peter Abelard to tutor her. Soon after, she became pregnant and had to secretly
marry Abelard – for he was a clergyman and sworn to celibacy. Abelard was
castrated by four of her uncle’s henchmen and retreated to a monastery.
Marina Nebro
Professor John O’Brien
History 100 – History of the Middle Ages