Notes for
Part 2:
Twentiethcentury
Music
Project 2: After the
Second World War
Neil Thomas (student number
509009)
Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
Electronic Music
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There were innovations before the war and new instruments emerged such as the theremin
(1920), ondes Martenot (1928) and Hammond organ (1929). The tape recorder was also
invented in 1935. It was after the war, though that music really began to use modern
technology.
An important development was the creation of musique concrete by Pierre Schaeffer (19101995) which created music from everyday sounds.
In the 1950’s electronic studios began to emerge around the world and the development of
the synthesiser made electronic music available to a wider band of musicians.
Further developments were the combination of traditional music with taped music which
over the years has progressed to the point where a lap top computer can in effect become a
musical instrument in it’s own right.
The work of Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928-2007) was very important in the development of
electronic music and his work has influenced a wide array of musicians from a diverse area.
Edwin Roxburgh – At the Still Point of the Turning World (1976)
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Oboe part then fed and repeated through speakers. Would sound very different without the
electronics part. Largely atonal. Other sounds as work progresses, clapping. Filtering? Ring
modulation? Increase in dynamics, as different timed tapes come into the piece, joining
canonically. Small trills on oboe part produced by flutter tongue technique.
Indeterminacy
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John Cage (1912-92) developed indeterminacy as a reaction to some of the complicated
forms of composition being used in Europe such as integral serialism. Cages idea is that
composed music could be affected by external factors, not in the control of the composer.
Cage had studied with Schoenberg and was also influenced by eastern philosophies. His
early works used serialism combined with rhythmic attributes of eastern music.
Cage’s best known work 4’33”, is for any number of musicians, and they don’t play a note. It
is a study in the sounds around the arena, audience sounds, coughs, rustling of programmes
etc.
John Cage – 4’33”
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My own performance. Wind blowing, cars, one with trailer, fan from convector, dull burr
from freezer, a distant aeroplane. Wind blowing on venetian blinds.
Exercise: Considering chance and serial music
John Cage – Imaginary Landscape No 5
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Early fragments of jazz exerts mixed up.
John Cage – Sonatas and Interludes for Prepared Piano, Sonata II
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Notes played in an unorganized manner, atonal work. Different sounds
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
John Cage – First Construction in Metal
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Mainly percussive opening. Again quite unorganised and random. More of a rhythm and
structure to this work that in the first two works. Various, mainly metallic devises used to
create sound.
Alban Berg – Violin Concerto (1935)
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Tonal work. First movement (Andante-allegro). Does have form, unlike the chance music if
indeterminacy. Tonal but with dissonance. Heavy start to second movement (Allegroadagio). Would definitely fit description of music. Tension through dynamics. Beautiful
adagio part of second movement to complete work.
Extended Tonality – Benjamin Britten
Peter Grimes (1945)
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Benjamin Britten 1913-1976
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/O008087 - accessed 25/2/12.
Article by Arnold Whittall.
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The consists of a prologue and three acts and is based on a poem, The Borough by George
Crabbe, with a libretto by Montagu Slater. First performed at Sadler’s Wells, London, June
7th 1945.
Set in a south east England coastal town called the Borough in about 1830.
Britten came across Crabbe’s work whilst in California with Peter Pears in 1941 (pears had a
book of his works) and the two worked on a sketch whilst in California and by the time they
returned to Britain in March 1942 had worked out the opera as it would be and transformed
the character of the title from the nasty person that Crabbe envisaged to the misunderstood
character in the opera.
Montagu Slater agreed to write a libretto after Christopher Isherwood had turned it down
and the draft of this was completed by the end of 1942. Britten set about composing the
music sometime in 1944 and the work was completed by February 1945, but not in the form
it would eventually appear. Stage director Eric Crozier and leading tenor Peter Pears had
decided early on that Peter Grimes would be used to reopen Saddler Wells following the end
of the war in Europe. Reginald Goodall conducted the première, with Peter Pears as Grimes
and Joan Cross as Ellen Orford.
Peter Grimes quickly established itself in the operatic repertoire as one of the most
successful twentieth century operas and Peter Pears became the establish tenor in the lead
role. Britten conducted a recording with Peter Pears in 1959. It was televised by the BBC in
1969.
The prologue takes place at a coroner’s inquest, where the fisherman, Peter Grimes is
cleared of blame in the death of his apprentice who was died in a fishing accident. The mood
of the people is against Grimes. Ellen Orford shows sympathy in Grimes, who is told not to
apprentice any more young boys. Britten uses conflicting keys, B flat and A in a duet
between Grimes and Orford.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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The first of the four sea interludes precedes Act one, which open with a chorus of the towns
folk going about the early morning activities of a busy fishing town.
Act One develops with a series of linked events as the ment of the town are reluctant to help
Grimes but Ellen Orford again defends him. Grimes then expresses his anguish of the events
that lead to the death of his apprentice, vowing that he will win over the borough.
The second interlude, a quite spectacular depiction of a storm links act 1, scene 1 to scene 2.
Britten keeps the tension throughout the act as the scene moves to the pub, The Boar Inn,
as the storm rages outside various roles, some sung, some recitative join before Peter
Grimes bursts in to collect his new apprentice. The apprentice is eventually bought to the
pub by Ellen and Hobson and Grimes without greeting takes the boy away as Ellen sing
‘Peter will take you home’, a refrain repeated by the chorus in an ironic manner.
The third interlude projects the image of a bright Sunday morning, here Britten uses string
and woodwind with horns and trumpets coming in on the final motif before the action of act
two commences.
Act Two’s opening scene is on a street near the sea on a fine sunny day. Ellen is knitting with
Grimes new apprentice, but she then notices a tear in the boy’s coat and a bruise on his neck
and she becomes agitated. Grimes then turns up to take the apprentice away, as he believes
only hard work earns the respect of society. Ellen and Grimes argue and Grimes strikes Ellen
before departing with John (his apprentice).
The borough then assembles around the distraught Ellen, who still defensive of Grimes
explains with motives, but now without sympathy. Lead by Boles, the people seek
retribution and Britten uses grim music to express the rage of the people of the borough as
the men march off to Grimes hut to save the apprentice. The four women are left behind to
reflect what has happened. Britten brings the mood of each part to this final part of the
scene, i.e. the happy Ellen at the start, the determination of Grimes, the anger of the crown
and the reflections of the women. Dissonance plays a part in the way Britten structures this
part.
As the scene shifts to Grimes hut, an upturned boat on a cliff top, the fourth interlude, a
passacaglia developed from ‘Grimes is at exercise’ links the scenes. The opening of scene II
encapsulates Peter Grimes inner turmoil, he feeling of both violence and tenderness to he
new apprentice, his remorse of the death of his first apprentice and his feeling towards
Ellen, whom he sees as a possible companion who would give him the stability he seeks, but
also the impossibility of this happening.
The music of the reflective dreamlike Grimes is ended by the march of the men from the
Borough. In his haste to escape the mob, Grimes ushers the boy from his hut, but he falls
over the cliff, in an accident (Britten is explicit about this in the score). The rector and
Swallow think all is well on finding the hut neat and tidy, but empty, but Balstrode, looking
down the cliff see’s the dead boy. Act two ends with the viola motif that opened the
passacaglia.
Scene one of Act 3 opens on a street by the sea a few day’s later. The orchestral opening is a
scene setting the mood of the night, whilst dances are heard from the Moot Hall. The
landlady is speculation that Grimes has murdered the boy. The scene is of mild conversation,
as the rector flirts with the nieces, but Balstrode and Ellen are overheard discussing the fact
that Grimes’ boat has returned, but there is no sign of Grimes himself. Balstrode has found
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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the boys shirts and Ellen laments that she recalls sowing the anchor on the shire. Mrs Sedley
who overheard Balstrode and Ellen talking rouses the townsfolk that Grimes is back.
Balstrode and Ellen talk of helping Grimes, although they now know he cannot be saved.
The final part of Act 3, Scene 1 uses a ferocious passage of music as the town is roused by
Mrs Sedley repeating what she has overheard and the people plotting vengeance on
Grimes.
Act 3, Scene 2 – the final orchestral interlude has the effect of changing the mood, not the
scene, which remains in the street by the coast. The music of the final scene changes at
different point, to reflect the poor mental health of Grimes. There are also reprises of earlier
material.
When Ellen and Balstrode appear, Ellen wants to take Grimes home but Balstrode urges his
to take his own life,
Flute motif at end as orchestra rejoins with the ‘dawn’ music from earlier in the opera and
members of the cast talk of a sinking boat no longer visible at sea. This is a refrain of
indifference from the Borough. A tragedy has occurred but life seems to go one, despite the
fact that it shouldn’t.
Holden, Amanda (1995), The Penguin Opera Guide, Penguin Books, London. Pp 54-57:
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The première of Peter Grimes was seen as a watershed for British music and although there
was opposition at Saddler’s Wells, the work was a success with public and critics, Britten
would become the first British born composer, who’s primary field was opera in over 300
years.
Within three years the major opera house of Europe had produced the opera, including
under the baton of Tullio Serafin in Milan. Leonard Bernstein would conduct it’s American
première.
Peter Grimes was commissioned whilst Britten and Pears were in America by the
Koussevitzky Music Foundation. The foundation commissioned a full length opera, following
the success of Paul Bunyan in America and Britten and Pears sketched Peter Grimes.
Eric Crozier re-wrote some of the libretto during the first production.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
Shostakovich and Politics
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Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-75)
Shostakovich was a very productive composer during the Soviet period, but under Stalin’s
regime his work came under severe scrutiny in the Communist party’s desire for music of
‘socialist realism’. He was twice rebuked and his works were occasionally banned.
Following the opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsenk, Shostakovich was accused of formalism and
this work was banned in the Soviet Union. His fourth symphony, being composed at this
time was shelved and not performed until 1961 (1962 abroad – Edinburgh).
Shostakovich composed his fifth symphony in 1937 and it was described as ‘A Soviet Artist’s
Response to Just Criticism’. The final movement draws on Soviet folklore melodies, so
meeting the criteria of ‘socialist realism’. The symphony though has been interpreted as
being a parody of socialist realism.
The tempo marking of the final movement are a matter of dispute and have been performed
at both the official quaver = 184 and the suggested crotchet = 184. The slow official tempo
may have been a deliberate act to rebel against the authorities in what should have been a
quick tempo finale.
Shostakovich – Symphony no 5 fourth movement, Version one: Mstislav Rostropovich (quaver =
184)(12:04)
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Opens with percussion. Heroic. Woodwind. Strings. Brass. Castanet, percussion, folk style.
Lot of dramatic parts. Slower at 3:41.Ostinato rhythm, slow. Repeated A in unison. Slow
middle section leads to rise in dynamics, although not a great deal of change to tempo. Ends
with timpani as it began.
David Fanning and Laurel Fay. "Shostakovich, Dmitry." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 3 Mar.
2012 <http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/52560pg1>.
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Shostakovich was a member of the ‘circle of young composers’ (1921-24) who were a group
of young Soviet musicians who had an interest in contemporary developments in the west.
As a student Shostakovich did not rebel against his teachers as Prokofiev had and so had a
good grounding in both traditional and contemporary form.
Shostakovich’s correspondence with an early love, Tat’yana Glivenko, is revealing of his
political feelings as a young man. He was generally in agreement with communism but had
reservations about some of the inherent impracticalities.
In 1925 Shostakovich met the music lover Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who introduced him to the
composer and theorist Nikolay Zhilyayev, who in turn became a mentor to the young
composer. Both Tukhachevsky(1938) and Zhilyayev (1937) were arrested and executed in
the Stalin’s Red Army purge.
Another victim of the purges was Mikhail Kvadri, who in 1925 was the dedicee of his first
symphony. He was a student friend of Shostakovich and the first acquaintance to be a victim
of the purge in 1929.
The first performance in May 1925 of the symphony was a great public success but critical
acclaim was good but reserved. It did however get international acclaim and became the
first Soviet work to get a place in the Western repertoire.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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Shostakovich was permitted to travel abroad during the 1920’s, visited Warsaw for a piano
competition and visited Berlin on the return journey. Also met Prokofiev on one of his trips
to Russia in 1927.
In 1927 Shostakovich was commissioned by the Propaganda Department to write Symphonic
Dedication to October, to mark the 10th anniversary of the October revolution. This became
his second symphony and included factory hooters and a text that was a propaganda
statement that Shostakovich privately did not like. He also wrote Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk
during the same year.
In 1930 Shostakovich’s first opera, The Nose had it’s première and in marked a change in
critical attitudes, as for the first time Shostakovich was accused of formalism.
Up to this point arts had enjoyed pluralism in Soviet Union, but things were now changing.
By 1929 the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAMP) had gained acceptance
over the western influenced Association of Contemporary Musicians. This was to change in
1932.
RAMP who’s ascendency as an independent body had been rapid was replaced by The
Union of Soviet Composers. The initial response to this organization was good from
Shostakovich and other composers as it gave a basis for music education and infrastructure
within the Soviet Union. However it was soon to become a tool for state control over music.
The remit of this new organization was socialist realism in music, which at the time was
defined as: ‘the truthful and historically concrete representation of reality in it’s
revolutionary development’.
Whilst Shostakovich spoke out in favour of much of official part opinion, he criticized jazz for
instance, he also practised these other disciplines including jazz, e.g his first jazz suite (1934).
During the purge, Shostakovich wrote film scores, ballets and theatre works which were
largely propagandist. This was an embarrassment to Shostakovich, who did not entirely
believe in the ideology of Stalinist doctrines.
These works were lucrative for Shostakovich, but the thin plots largely portraying heroic
socialist figures against the capitalist bourgeois figures were not to his liking. Shostakovich
found it easier to write satirical music than positive music, with the result that the music
representing the villains (ie the capitalists) was better to listen to than the music written for
the socialist heroic character being portrayed in a positive way.
Shostakovich worked on his first ballet scores in 1929-31 and these too had a propagandist
theme which were not to his liking and he determined to work on projects that were of
interest to him. He did enjoy working with some talented theatre directors and with TRAM
(Leningrad Theatre of Young Workers) until it was clear that this organization was also
motivated by Soviet political policy.
By late 1931 Shostakovich had decided that his only works worthy of contributing to Soviet
arts were his third symphony and The Nose, and was concerned at the dire state of Soviet
music in general. He decided to take a 5 year hiatus from theatre work and was involved
from the start in the foundation of the Union of Soviet Composers and served on the
governing body of the Leningrad branch.
The Nose was the first Shostakovich opera and did not feature an ideological theme. In 193132 he began work on Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District and was confident of it’s success.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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The première of Lady Macbeth in 1934 was a massive public and critical success and was
performed 177 times in its first couple of years, usually to packed houses. Shostakovich
planned a teratology of opera’s based on Russian heroines. The only criticism of Lady
Macbeth was from the conservative wing of the composers union.
The Stalin purges of ‘The Great Terror’ began from December 1934 and every Soviet artist
was at risk of arrest or worse. Stalin and some cronies attended a performance of Lady
Macbeth and the ballet The Limpid Stream which were both widely condemned, initially
anonymously in Pravda and then in general by music critics and members of the union of
composers. This took away Shostakovich’s pre-eminence as the Soviet Union’s leading
composer which he would eventually regain but always in fear of the authorities. Some of
the people that criticised Shostakovich, such as Asaf’yev, never regained the respect of
Shostakovich and there were some exception who defended his work. But in the context of
the purges these critics had little choice but to toe the party line because the recriminations
if you did not were so terrible. Virtually every family in Moscow and Leningrad, including
Shostakovich’s were affected by the purges.
Shostakovich asked his friend Isaak Glikman to keep a scrapbook of the negative reports he
was receiving and asked Tukhachevsky to intervene. There are reports that during this
period Shostakovich contemplated suicide. Tukhachevsky would perish in the purges and it
is also reported that Shostakovich was interrogated about his relationship with the Marshall.
The NKVD allegedly listed Shostakovich as a Trotskyite.
Shostakovich was kept going by the birth of his first child and the work on his fourth
symphony which was completed in May 1936. Under official pressure it was withdrawn
shortly before its première. It was released as a work for two pianos in 1946 and the
symphony was not finally premièred until 1961, during Shostakovich’s final rehabilitation.
Photograph: Cite: "Shostakovich (centre) with Prokofiev (left) and Khachaturian, Moscow,
1945." Grove Music Online.Oxford Music Online. 4 Mar.
2012<http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/img/grove/music/F006162>.
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In December 1936 Shostakovich wrote a Curriculum Vitae in La Revue Musicale in which he
commits to ‘the development of socialism in my country’. It makes no mention of the earlier
events. Shostakovich now had to satisfy both his artistic urges and the criteria set from
above.
In December 1936 to celebrate the 100th birthday of Pushkin, Shostakovich wrote music to
Pushkin texts. One of these ‘rebirth’ is seen as depicting his personal situation at the time
and the opening line of the song reappear in the finale of the fifth symphony. From this
point on Shostakovich’s work is often viewed as having hidden meaning, but not in any
obvious way where it could endanger his life or freedom.
The première of the fifth symphony on November 21st 1937 was an overwhelming success
and there was open weeping during the slow movement and a half hour ovation at the end.
This is both seen a celebration of the composers rehabilitation and the people expressing
themselves about the horror of ‘The Great Terror’ in the only way they could in public. The
work was received very well by public and critics, although some did notice the unresolved
tensions of the finale (Fanning).
In 1937 Shostakovich took a post teaching instrumentation and composition at Leningrad
conservatory. He would teach, except between 1948-1961 when he was once again fallen
from grace, until 1968.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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A combination of teaching commitments and having now been rehabilitated the fear of not
loosing that status meant that Shostakovich worked on few major works during the period
of World War 2. Only the sixth symphony of 1939 with contrasting moods is of any
significance. He did however work on small works of mainly chamber music.
When the Germans invaded Russia, Shostakovich was caught up in the patriotism that Stalin
encouraged and started work on the seventh symphony. When he was evacuated from
Leningrad he completed the symphony in the East of the country on December 27th. The
seventh symphony was premièred at Kuybïshev on March 5th 1942 and the score was
transported west via microfilm and against fierce competition Sir Henry Wood gave it its
western première at the London Proms.
This work was played in Leningrad on the day Hitler said it would fall, by a group of
musicians still in the city and others transported there for the occasion. They played it to
German troops as an act of defiance. The work came to be a symbol of anti-fascism in the
west and a festival of Shostakovich’s music was performed in San Francisco in September
1942 and birthday greetings were sent from Charlie Chaplin, Paul Robeson, Toscanini and
Stokowski.
The eighth symphony of 1947 by contrast was a dour affair and not welcomed with any
enthusiasm.
January 1948 saw the beginning of the next clampdown on composers by Andrey Zhdanov,
the man put in charge of the arts. Shostakovich wrote a satirical cantata based in part on
Zhdanov’s speech, which was mainly notated in 1957, worked on in the 1960’s but not
performed until post-glasnost times in 1989
Anti-Semitism became a part of Soviet culture from 1947, although not officially, and
Shostakovich had to shelve several works that drew on Jewish folklore.
He was criticized by the composers union and spoke out in his defence which lead to his
music once again being blacklisted. He was sent on international conferences as part of his
rehabilitation where he often had to pretend agreement with the Soviet Union’s restrictive
policies. His 10th symphony in 1954 lead to days of debate about its suitability, but following
Stalin’s death in 1953 the restrictions on art were slowly lifting.
Following Stalin’s death the period under Nikita Khrushchyov became known as ‘the Thaw’
and thing gradually got easier for both the general public and artists. Gradually
Shostakovich’s banned works were allowed to be performed and on May 28 1958 the antiformalism decree of 1948 was partially lifted.
Contact with western artists also became possible and Shostakovich more frequently
travelled abroad. In 1960 on his second trip to England he became friendly with Benjamin
Britten. Stravinsky also visited the Soviet Union during this period.
Although the stresses under Stalin were being eroded, Khrushchyov’s price was a closer
following of the party’s doctrines and so Shostakovich accepted several party posts including
the committee of the Glinka centenary in 1957 and secretary the now renamed Union of
Composers of the USSR.
Shostakovich’s music became more conformist during this period including his 11th & 12th
symphonies of 1957 & 1961. These celebrated or commemorated the 1905 ‘bloody Sunday’
massacre and the 1917 revolution.
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Notes for Part Two: Twentieth Century Music. Project Two: After World War Two by Neil Thomas (student number 509009)
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Shostakovich was put under pressure to join the communist party and in 1960 he did join,
much to his shame. (See also notes on ‘The unknown Shostakovich’ TV programme)
Following his death in 1975, contemporary obituaries in both the Soviet and western press
painted a picture of a committed communist. It is only later scholarly works that have
opened up the question of the ‘real’ Shostakovich.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._5_(Shostakovich) - accessed 4/3/12
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First performance Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Yevgeny Mravinsky in
Leningrad on November 21st 1937
Dual meaning of third movement.
Rostropovich version revisited:
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Heroic style opening. Developing into slow march, before tempo drops off, as side drum
introduces slow section. Flute part, over unison strings, with bassoon. Unison not ostinato.
Dynamics increase towards climax but still unison string with woodwind and brass playing
melody, heavy, austere sound, not celebratory, but threatens to become that
Leonard Bernstein:
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Quicker tempo from beginning, giving is more joyous texture, totally changing nature of the
finale. Side drum again leading into slower section, but this time played at a much faster
tempo. The unison A have a different feel at the faster tempo.
Vasily Petrenko – Royal Liverpool Philharmonic (slow tempo):
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Slightly different use of percussion at the transition to the slow section, cymbal and timpani
rather than side drum. Complete stop before building towards climax. Subtle differences
from the Rostropovich. Dynamics build with the unison A leading up to climax (from slow
section).
Leopold Stokowski – LSO
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Quicker tempo. Higher flute part in opening section.
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