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Stephanie Aldrich
Professor Brantley
13 December 2013
EMSC 100S
China’s Nuclear Waste Repository Options
In the past sixty years, since the development of nuclear energy, the process of nuclear
waste disposal creates many problems. Not only does the method of disposal and repository
create problems, but also in public and government confidence. Nuclear energy arises as one of
the most convenient methods of energy because of its efficiency and small emission of
greenhouse gases, and many countries all around the world have established nuclear energy as a
primary contributor of energy production. China has been a leading producer of nuclear energy
and continues to expand. It began its nuclear energy policy in 1972 with its “728 project, to
develop submarine reactors” (Yi-Chong 2008). However, China did not begin most of its nuclear
energy industry until the time of the Chernobyl and Three Mile Island incidents (Yi-Chong
2008). Because of China’s high population, which has reached nearly 1.35 billion, nuclear
energy creates a great option to feed the energy demand of the country (A Surprising Map 2013).
China only acquires 2.3 percent of its electricity from nuclear power but plans to improve this
percentage over the next 50 years (“China Planning for Massive Nuclear Waste Disposal 2013).
Why the sudden push in nuclear energy? “Coal has been meeting more than two-thirds of
the total energy demand in China” and but the availability is diminishing across the entire world;
therefore, an alternative form of energy is necessary (Yi-Chong 2008). At the current time, China
has “17 nuclear reactors in operation” and “30 under construction” and as the nuclear industry is
growing, China will look to expand its industry (World Nuclear Association 2013). In 2012,
China consumed 4.9 kWh of electricity and further hopes to increase its nuclear dependence
(World Nuclear Association 2013).
As with any nation hosting nuclear power plants, China has the problem of disposal. An
analysis needs to be performed in order to determine the safest means of permanent storage. In
2012, China had “35% of resources…in sandstone deposits mainly in the north and northwest,
28% in vein/ granite deposits in central and southeast China, 21% in volcanic deposits in the
southeast, and 10% in black shale in the southeast” (World Nuclear Association[2] 2013). The
process of waste disposal can be costly and complex as the process requires transportation,
maintenance, and storage. All details are held at high importance including those in
transportation and storage canisters. The current process of China’s nuclear waste is that “the
spent fuels would be firstly stored in on-site spent fuel ponds at nuclear power plants, and then
transported to a reprocessing plant for recycle of uranium and plutonium contained in spent
fuels; high-level liquid waste produced from the reprocessing operation would be vitrified into
glasses and finally stored in the centralized deep geological disposal facility” (Makoua 2011).
The optimum location for the location of a repository in China can be determined through the
conscious knowledge of the country’s population and transportation, and resources and
geological options. China has determined a possible repository location of Beishan which
possesses the best qualities for nuclear waste storage through its location, rock characteristics,
and, most importantly, security of the radioactive material.
China has begun the process of researching and testing the deep geological granite
repository of Beishan, located in north central China; however, the site will not begin
construction until 2041 (Wang 2010). “Studies include regional crust stability, tectonic
evolution, lithological studies, hydrogeological studies and preliminary geophysical surveys” and
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concluded not only that granite is the most suitable host rock, but also that Beishan is the most
suitable granite location (Wang 2010). The location of the repository is separate from the power
plants and the majority of the population. Beishan has a smaller population making it an ideal
location because there are less people that could be effected by a nuclear catastrophe. China has
begun analyzing the geological, demographical, and material components of Beishan and now
begin the construction of the site.
Like any nuclear waste repository, the location would need to be monitored for protection
of the waste. China’s geological layout shows that there are many places all across the country
that have granite access as shown in Figure 2. With the large amount of granite present all across
the country and in central China specifically, there are many options for granite repository
research. Within the area of discussion, the resources of the country limit the location of the
repository. Central China holds a few oil basins as seen in Figure 3. To avoid disagreement in the
oil retrieval process and other energy producing methods, the repository would be best
positioned between the two locations in central China and in the southeast corner of the country.
Also, with oil basins at a safe distance, it would reduce the likelihood of drilling on or near the
repositories. Beishan is located in northwest China which is far from the majority of resources in
China. An oil basin is located nearby in the southeast, however the repository site is not located
in the basin.
Water intrusion is an important variable to consider. Groundwater can get into the
canisters and further mix with the waste. If the waste itself escapes with the water, it can
contaminate the drinking water of the surrounding area. As for the area around the repository,
“Beishan area is an arid Gobi desert area, with an average annual precipitation of 70 mm, but an
annual evaporation of 3 000 mm” which means there will be limited water exposure at the site
(Wang 2010). Because of the environment and geological rock used for repository, there is
limited chance the water could get near the waste. For extra protection, titanium drip shields
could be included over the storage canisters acting as an umbrella against the invading water.
Titanium drip shields require the plates to be completely interlocked in order to achieve
maximum protection of the waste (Department of Energy 2006). However, titanium drip shields
are very expensive. An advantage China has for titanium is that titanium is mined in the country,
elimination importation costs (Figure 3). If the funds are available, the extra protection should be
emplaced. This is also extra security for the citizens of China. If the drip shields can be properly
maintained and monitored, the barrier can greatly aid in the protection of the nuclear waste.
In order to best store the nuclear waste of a country like China, one must analyze the
population density and transportation routes. China has a high population, however, a majority of
the population is located on the east/northeast side of the country (Figure 1). The best place to
house a nuclear repository would be away from the population for both safety and public
cooperation. This can then be cross referenced with the geology of the country to find the best
location. However, the location needs to be close enough to the power plants due to the
complication of transportation. The country has a highly developed train system which allows for
the creation of a nuclear waste transportation system. If nuclear waste is transported by train,
human contact with the radioactive material would be limited. Therefore creating a safer and
more efficient system of transport. In order to minimize the cost of transportation, the location of
the repositories should be relatively close to the power plant. The train system of China is
already established to come close to the cite making easy train transportation access to the
repository (Figure 5).
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With the geological options of China, one of the best options for repository is granite.
Granite holds various beneficial characteristics such as low rock pressure, low permeability, a
favorable chemical environment, and low probability of human intrusion (Mariner 2011). These
characteristics allow for safe construction conditions as compared to other forms of nuclear
waste repository. An important factor for nuclear waste repository is ground water. Any possible
ground water in the repository could cause major issues in the spread of nuclear waste. The
characteristics of granite allows little chance water near the waste because of the isolation
characteristics of the mineral (Mariner 2011). As for the chemical formation of granite, Mariner
and colleagues stated that it “is expected that a repository excavated in granite formations would
have a reducing environment that would limit corrosion of the waste canisters, contributing to
their long term ability to isolate waste” (Mariner 2011).
Granite proves to be the optimal host rock for storage but how will this repository be
built? The repository is proposed to be placed deep in the rock in clear cut tunnels and rooms. In
granite, there is the opportunity to place the waste in the fractures of the rock, however, there is
the possibility of losing the waste. Once the waste is placed in the fractures, there is not
retrieving the waste. This is why I propose that China create clear, organized rooms and tunnels
for the waste containers. There would be a series of main room where the waste would be
transported and moved through, with individual rooms and tunnels for the waste to be stored.
The rooms would be clearly organized and labelled by the type of waste.
Before the discussion of canister storage, the waste must be vitrified into glass. “The
waste solution must be dried, then calcined, and finally melted, together with suitable glass
additives” (IEEE 1982). Glass containment has many safety benefits and is a valuable part for
waste storage. “As a solid, the waste becomes easier to store and handle; a small volume is
desired because there are likely to be few candidates for long-term storage spaces and thus space
will be at a premium” (Stanford University 2010). Not only the volume will be reduced but also
the amount of water contamination will be as well. The glass creates an additional barrier to
harmful elements and possible problems.
With the decision of train transportation, the step of the transportation canisters must be
addressed. After the waste is glass vitrified, it is put into sustainable canisters. “Transport and
storage become less expensive if a larger number of fuel rod assemblies can be placed in the
container” (Society for Risk Analysis 2012). The best form of canister is Pollux used for “direct
ultimate waste disposal of spent fuel elements” (European Nuclear Society 2013). These
canisters are not only used for transportation, but also the permanent storage of the waste which
ensures another component of safety. “An internal container to accommodate the compacted fuel
elements - separated by a neutron moderator - is surrounded and protected by an external shield
container made of spheroidal graphite (SG) iron” (European Nuclear Society 2013). Iron and
steel canisters are relatively corrosion resistant and have the strength to store the nuclear waste
for hundreds of years (Posiva 2005). But I believe the canisters should also include copper as one
of the protective layers. A canister with two materials to protect the waste would give the waste
the extra protection. Both iron and copper have corrosion resistant and strength benefits that
create the best canister for storage and transport of a Pollux canister (Posiva 2005). These Pollux
canisters are classified as Type B casks which, in definition, are used for transportation of waste
with high radiation levels and go under extreme tests before approved including free drop,
pressure, heat, and immersion tests (Fentiman n.d.). The canisters withstand all the tests
mentioned before approved showing it to be the most reliable form of canister not only for
transportation, but also geological storage.
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Thermal energy from the radioactive waste causes stress on the surrounding materials and
can have an effect on the structure of the repository as well as the canisters the waste is held in.
As the waste approaches a stable state, heat is given off and causes “corrosion and structural
changes” leading to potential problems such as nuclide leakage and water intrusion (Annals of
Nuclear Energy 2011). As the heat is applied to the canisters surrounding the waste, the canisters
break down. The repository would have a system of monitoring the thermal energy of the waste
in all tunnels with extra monitoring for waste packages with higher levels of thermal energy.
From thermal heat, the question of orientation of waste arises (Annals of Nuclear Energy 2011).
The area of repository must be analyzed to figure out if the waste packages should have a
vertical or horizontal orientation. Thermal energy also dictates the depth of the nuclear waste.
Midway between drift wall usually is the where the most limiting temperature occurs (Annals of
Nuclear Energy 2011). Although thermal energy has the potential to cause problems, it can be
monitored and actually dictate the location of the waste.
After the devastation of Fukushima Daiichi, the progression process of nuclear power in
China has been suspended during review of the accident (World Nuclear Association 2013). This
tragedy caused many countries across the world to rethink their nuclear power plans in terms of
safety. The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) was created under the China
Atomic Energy Authority in 1984 and takes the lead position of safety regulation for nuclear
power in China while the China Atomic Energy Authority develops plans and projects for
disposal (World Nuclear Association 2013). China is determined to achieve the “world’s best
standard in nuclear safety” (World Nuclear Association 2013). China’s nuclear policy has not
been finalized but “the final decision may still remain in the hands of the central government; the
process leading to the decision is contested by multiple competing interests—those of various
government agencies, state corporations, and the public.” (Yi-Chong 2008). China continues to
improve its nuclear safety policy as it continues to expand its industry.
Due to the restrictions of the countries geological and demographic orientation, China
creates possible repository location in the center and southeast areas of the country. For nuclear
waste repository, a large support to keep nuclear waste far from the population emphasizes the
importance of a repository in central China for cooperation measures. However, because the
nuclear power plants are located majorly near the east coast where population density is the
highest, the repository would be most beneficial and inexpensive in the center of the country.
Also, because China is so resource rich, the area of repository is limited to a space not used by
resource retrieval. Granite would create the most effective form of repository because of its
characteristics. The Beishan location in northwestern China sustains the best possibility for
geological repository. As China’s nuclear industry expands, Beishan will be the first of many
repositories all across the country.
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