Effect of Blending Wheat Flour on Proximate Compositions and
Functional Properties of Broken Rice Flour
Ishfaq Ahmeda *, Ihsan Mabood Qazia and Suraiya Jamala
a
Dept. of Food Science and Technology, The University of Agriculture Peshawar-Pakistan.
*
Corresponding email: Cell # +92-3003952685, Email: ishfak90@gmail.com
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of blending native wheat flour
(WF) on broken rice flour (BRF) at various levels (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 g/100 g) on the
proximate compositions and functional properties. Percent moisture, ash and protein contents
increased significantly (P < 0.05) by the addition of WF with BRF and were found in the range
of 4.47–7.09%, 0.52–1.01% and 8.93–12.25% respectively. However, fat content decreased
significantly (P < 0.05) from 1.41% to 1.17%. Water absorption index (WAI), water solubility
index (WSI) and swelling power (SP) decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with the increase in the
proportion of wheat flour in the blends. The values for WAI, WSI and SP were 4.73–6.18 g/g,
1.98–3.99% and 5.35–6.81 g/g, respectively. Blending of WF with BRF had substantially
affected the proximate compositions and functional properties.
Keywords:
Broken rice flour, Wheat flour, Blends, Proximate composition, Functional properties
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important crop of the world and next to wheat in its
importance in the human diet (Singh et al., 2005). It is very energetic and basic food stuff
consumed in our daily life and has a very high digestibility value. It composition reveals that it
contains about 78% carbohydrates, 7% protein, 0.4–0.8% fat (Laureys, 1999) and is a good
source of the B vitamins; thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin (Fresco, 2005). Rice flour is obtained by
finely milling of rice grains. It is particularly a good substitute for wheat flour. Steeping of rice
in lye solution produces rice starch, which is totally different from rice flour (Chandra and
Samsher, 2013). Some peoples are gluten intolerant and wheat flour causes irritation in the
digestive systems of such peoples, so rice flour is used to compensate this problem (Torbica et
al., 2010). It is a staple food of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Japan, India and Thailand. It has
been extensively used for scientific and industrial purposes as a primary gluten free flour base
(Park et al., 2012). Ordinary milled rice grains lack certain components, while brown rice
contain germ and bran also, which provide certain health beneficial components such as dietary
fibers, phytic acids, vitamins and gamma amino butyric acid (Chung et al., 2012). Because of the
nutritional values of rice, it is not only consumed as cooked grains but also in a variety of
products such as noodles, puddings, deserts, etc (Inglett et al., 2005). Additionally, rice flour is
used as an ingredient in functional food, processing aid, coating agent, water binders, expanding
agents in extruded food, emulsifiers, fat replacers and flavor carriers (Inglett et al., 2005).
The quality characteristics of rice grains are appearance, nutritional value, cooking and eating
properties (Juliano et al., 1990). The granular size of starches in rice flour vary from 3 to 8 µm
and much smaller than granules obtained from other sources. Rice flour lack the physical
functionality of wheat gluten, which limits the use of rice flour in product development
(Gallagher et al., 2004). It has been identified that elasticity, resistance to stretch as well as
mixing behavior of rice dough is not comparable to that of wheat dough and thus has low
cohesive and viscoelastic structure (Cham and Suwannaporn, 2010). Physicochemical properties
of rice flour affect the quality parameters of the final products (Bhattacharya et al., 1999). Flour
from different rice varieties showed differences in starch, amylose, amylopectin, protein, lipid
and ash contents. These compositional differences affect the functional, pasting, thermal,
cooking and eating properties of the final product (Wang and Wang, 2004). On the other hand,
Edwards et al. (2002) indicated that increasing the concentration of smaller granules (rice flour
starches) have increased the elasticity and viscoelastic structure of the dough and also interpreted
that this differences occurred as a result of interaction between starch and protein, which affect
the properties of flour. It also inhibits starch granules expansion during gelatinization and
inhibiting retrogradation (Huang and Lai, 2010). Greater water hydration and soluble loss were
observed by dry milled rice flour due to greater starch damage, while wet milled rice flour
showed higher peak viscosity upon gelatinization (Heo et al., 2013).
Wheat (Triticum spp.), one of the oldest crop, is cultivated worldwide and is used as a staple
food for majority of the nations. It is the major source of vegetable protein in human diet
(Uthayakumaran and Wrigley, 2010). Approximate composition of wheat flour consists of 72%
carbohydrates, 8 to 13% protein, 2.5% sugar, 1.5% fat, 12 to 13% moisture, 1.0% soluble protein
and 0.5% minerals (Oberoi et al., 2007). The bran is separated during milling of white flour. The
wheat kernel contain embryo which is a concentrated source of minerals, protein and vitamins,
while the endosperm is a starch storage portion of the kernel (Bozzini, 1988). Gliadin and
glutenin are the two most important protein fractions. These are insoluble in water and form
gluten matrix and within that matrix starch granules act as filler particles (Edwards et al., 2002),
which gives dough its unique characteristics like cohesiveness and viscoelasticity (Li and
Vasanthan, 2003). These properties of wheat dough thus help in bread making and other wide
range of food applications such as noodles, pasta, soups, biscuits, cakes (Uthayakumaran and
Wrigley, 2010).
Composite flours resulted in a very unique viscoelastic behavior or physical changes that cannot
be attributed to the final amylose content and mixing ratios of the blends (Lin et al., 2002).
However, it is supposed to be resulted from the different swelling and solubility properties of
each starch in the flour mixtures (Chen et al., 2003a). The intermolecular associations of the
blends are still uncertain (Lin et al., 2002). Reconstitution of different flours either increases or
decreases the compositions up to certain extent, which affect the quality attributes of final
products (Gianibelli et al., 2005). Huang and Lai (2010) investigated the effect of reconstitution
of wheat flour with waxy and non-waxy rice flours. Water absorption of the dough increased due
to the smaller granular size of rice flour starches and a dense packing of starch granules within a
gluten network. Functional properties represent the interaction between the structure,
composition, molecular conformation and physicochemical characteristics of the food
components with the subsequent environment in which it exists and is determined by chemical
and physical means (Siddiq et al., 2009). Although broken rice constitute the largest volume
fraction of rice sold in the market at a very low price and considered to be of very low quality.
The objective of this study involved the collection of data on the proximate compositions and
functional properties of this underutilized rice flour and also to find out the effect of blending
WF on these properties. This provide the necessary information regarding the utilization of
broken rice flour along with wheat flour in industries or other alike to develop natural, nutritious,
cheap and acceptable functional foods.
Materials and Methods
Broken rice grains and whole wheat flour were procured from the flour mill located in Board
bazaar Peshawar, Pakistan. Broken rice was considered as waste materials in the flour mill. The
research work was conducted in the laboratory of Food Science and Technology, The University
of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan.
Milling of broken rice. The broken rice was first cleaned from impurities. Broken rice kernels
were ground into flour by using a Laboratory mill (THOMAS-Wiley, Model 4. U.S.A). The
Broken rice flour was passed through 100 mesh sieve. Wheat flour was also passed through the
same sieve to obtain uniform particle size of flours. Both the flours were then packed in airtight
plastic bags, and were stored at a refrigeration temperature until further analysis (Heo et al.,
2013).
Blending formulation. Broken rice flour (BRF) and wheat flour (WF) were blended in different
ratios as shown in Table 1. The flour samples were then studied for proximate compositions and
functional properties as discussed below.
Table 1.
Blending formulation of broken rice flour (BRF) and wheat flour (WF)
S.No
Samples
Broken Rice flour (g)
Wheat flour (g)
01
BRF:WF(100:00)
100
00
02
BRF:WF(80:20)
80
20
03
BRF:WF(60:40)
60
40
04
BRF:WF (40:60)
40
60
05
BRF:WF(20:80)
20
80
06
BRF:WF (00:100)
00
100
Proximate analysis of flour samples. The percent moisture, ash, crude protein and crude fat of
broken rice and wheat flour and their blends (Table 1) were determined by the standard methods
of AOAC (2012). All the samples were replicated three times and data was collected separately
for each replication
Functional properties of flour. Rice and wheat flour as well as their blends were studied for
water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), and swelling power (SP). The WAI,
WSI and SP were determined by the method of Thumrongchote et al. (2012).
Water absorption index (WAI) and Water solubility index (WSI). The samples were first fully dried
and then 1.0 g of the flour sample was accurately weighed and dissolved in 6 ml distilled water. It was
then placed in a shaking water bath for 30 minutes at 80 oC. The mixture was then transferred into a
centrifugation machine and was centrifuged for 10 minutes at 2500 rpm. The supernatant was poured into
a clean pre-weighed Petri-dish and placed in an oven at 105 oC for 10 hours. After drying, the sample was
weighed with the help of electric balance. The wet sediment remained in the Petri-dish was weighed
directly. Both WAI and WSI were calculated with the following formula, respectively.
WAI =
WSI (%) =
wt. of wet sediment
dry wt. of flour
wt. of dried supernatant
× 100
dry wt. of flour
Swelling power (SP). Flour sample of 500 mg was accurately weighed and placed in a preweighed centrifuge tube and 15 ml of distilled water was poured into the tube. The mixture was
then placed in a shaking water bath, which was adjusted at 80 oC for 30 minutes. The sample was
then taken out and placed in a centrifugation machine for 20 minutes at 4000 rpm. The
supernatant was poured into a cleaned pre-weighed Petri dish, which was then kept in an oven at
105 oC till constant weight was obtained. The dried sample was weighed and the sediment at the
bottom of the centrifuge tube was weighed as such. Swelling power of the samples was
calculated as mentioned in the following formula.
SP =
wt. of sediment
wt. of flour – wt. of dried supernatant
Statistical analysis. Data’s were analyzed using one-way (ANOVA) procedures in a completely
randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Least Significance Difference (LSD) test was
performed for mean separation (Steel and Torrie, 1997). Statistical analysis was performed using
the software Statistix 8.1.
Results and Discussions
Proximate composition of flours. The proximate composition of any food sample is studied to
determine the nutritional composition of that sample and also its concentration by weight in the
sample. This analysis is very much important as it shows a better view of the nutritional benefits
of that specific product in the diet. The present study showed that rice and wheat flours as well as
the blends contains appreciable amount of important nutrients required for the maintenance of
the body as shown in the respective figures.
The results revealed that blending wheat flour in different proportions had significantly (P <
0.05) increased moisture content, ash and crude protein contents of broken rice flour, except
crude fat, which was decreased significantly (P < 0.05). Moisture, ash, crude protein and fat
content were found in the range of 4.47-7.09%, 0.52-1.01%, 8.93-12.25% and 1.17-1.41%
respectively, having least value for BRF:WF (100:00) and highest value for BRF:WF (00:100),
while fat content was maximum in BRF:WF (100:00) and vice versa (Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Moisture content of 5.00 to 5.88% was found in flours obtained from different varieties of rice
(Thumrongchote et al., 2012). On the other hand, Nura et al. (2011) reported that moisture
content in rice flour was in the range of 8.50–8.58%. Similarly, Yadav et al. (2014) and Akanbi
et al. (2011) observed that wheat flour had a moisture content of 4.65 to 8.50%. The reason
behind the increased in moisture content was described by Martinez et al. (2009), who
investigated that blending of wheat flour with non-glutinous flour increased the concentration of
protein content which resulted in strong gluten network. Eventually the separation of moisture
from the flour becomes difficult during the drying process. The drying of flour samples was
affected by various factors such as processing temperature, time and milling method (Luh and
Mickus, 1991). Higher the fiber content of the flour, higher would be the moisture content
(Maneju et al., 2011). Moisture content greater than 20% is not favorable for the storage of flour,
as it accelerates the growth of microorganisms (Akanbi et al., 2011).
The values of ash content of rice flour are similar with the findings of Han et al. (2011),
Thumrongchote et al. (2012) and Nura et al. (2011) were in the range of 0.32 to 0.77%. The
results regarding the ash content of wheat flour are in accordance with the observation of Han et
al. (2013) and Ngozi (2014), who determined that wheat flour had the ash content of 0.86 to
2.29%. Ash contents were found to be higher in rice bran (6.73%) than other cereal bran (Kaur et
al., 2012; Islam et al., 2012). Difference in sources, milling process and varieties causes
variation in the ash contents of the flour (Han et al., 2011).
The values regarding the protein content of rice flours are in close agreement with Han et al.
(2011) and Fari et al. (2011), who analyzed the protein content in different rice varieties and
were in range of 6.84 to 11.18%. It showed that flour obtained from different varieties have
different protein content which might be because of the differences in genetic makeup. Values
regarding percent protein content of wheat flour were in the range of 11.65 to 14.93% (Han et
al., 2013; Ngozi, 2014). However, Perez et al. (2009) reported that the aleurone layer of rice
grains is removed during dry milling which resulted in the reduction of protein content. Starch
molecules are bound in a protein network, which ultimately influence the pasting properties of
the flour. Flour having high concentration of protein content binds more starch content
(Rosniyana and Hazila, 2013). The matrix formed by protein had a three dimensional network
structure which can hold significant amount of water (Martinez et al., 2009; Chung et al., 2012).
Protein content in flour had significant impact on the quality of product, as it provide good
texture and improve the nutritional value (Wadchararat et al., 2006).
The range of present findings of fat content in rice flour is comparable to that of Han et al.
(2011) and Fari et al. (2011). They observed that fat content in rice flour ranged from 0.56–
2.17%. In contrast, Thumrongchote et al. (2012) recorded lower fat content (0.27–0.30%) in
different non-glutinous rice varieties. The fat content of different samples of wheat flour was
found to be in the range of 1.31 to 3.23% (Ngozi, 2014). The fat content was considerably higher
in non-broken samples compared to the broken rice. Parboiling of rice resulted in the diffusion of
oil from germ to the bran layer; consequently fat in broken rice is lesser than non- broken rice
flour. As in broken rice, some leaching of oil takes place (Zecchinelli and Fossati, 1983). Among
the cereal bran, fat content was found highest in rice bran (Kaur et al., 2012). Whole wheat flour
had higher proximate values compared with white wheat flour (Ngozi, 2014).
Functional properties of flour. Functional properties of flour has very much importance in the
development of products, as it indicate the amount of water requirement for the development of
optimum dough and also indicates the behavior and properties of the flour after the addition of
water (Islam et al., 2012). The functional properties i.e. WAI, WSI and SP of different
treatments are presented in figures 5, 6 and 7 respectively. With the increase in the levels of
wheat flour in the blends, the WAI, WSI and SP decreased.
Differences in the values for WAI, WSI and SP of flours were found significant (P < 0.05). Pure
broken rice flour had the highest WAI (6.18 g/g), WSI (3.99%) and SP (6.81 g/g) than the other
treatments, whereas pure wheat flour showed the lowest WAI (4.73 g/g), WSI (1.98%) and SP
(5.35 g/g) respectively. The observed values for WAI are in accordance with the results of
Thumrongchote et al. (2012) and Heo et al. (2013), who found the values of 6.0–8.0 g/g and 3.3–
5.0 g/g respectively. While, Chandra and Samsher (2013) found that rice flour and wheat flour
had water absorption index of 1.92 g/g and 1.40 g/g, respectively. The incorporation of wheat
flour into rice flour decreased the WAI of the flour blends as reported in earlier studies (Ammar
et al., 2009). The important factor affecting the water absorption capacity of cereal flour are
related with starch damage level as reported by Chiang and Yeh (2002), who found a direct
relationship between damaged starch level and water absorption index. Smaller starch granule
size of rice flour is also responsible for increased water absorption (Nura et al., 2011). Protein,
fat, fiber, amylose and carbohydrate content in the flour affect the water absorption capacity of
the flour (Chandra and Samsher, 2013; Maneju et al., 2011). The increased WAI might be the
result of increased concentration of starches and fiber in flour (Chandra and Samsher, 2013).
Differences in varieties, particle sizes and starch granule structures affect the WAI of the flour
(Nura et al., 2011).
The values regarding the WSI of rice flour are in agreement with the findings (0.6–7.94%) of
Wadchararat et al. (2006), Thumrongchote et al. (2012) and Heo et al. (2013). Similarly, wheat
flour showed the lowest WSI (Yadav et al., 2014). The degradation of starch granules may cause
an increase in water solubility (Yadav et al., 2014). Temperature had a direct relationship with
the water solubility (Wadchararat et al., 2006); higher the temperature higher would be the water
solubility index of the flour. Milling also affects the WSI of the flour, as it degrades starch
granules (Heo et al., 2013).
The present results of SP are similar with the results reported by Fari et al. (2011),
Thumrongchote et al. (2012) and Wadchararat et al. (2006). They observed that the rice flour
swelling power ranged from 5.82–16.23 g/g. The value of 6.5 g/g was recorded for SP of native
wheat flour (Yadav et al., 2014). The swelling power of dry and wet milled rice flour at 25 oC
and 100 oC were 4.7 g/g, 10.9 g/g and 3.8 g/g, 12.6 g/g, respectively (Heo et al., 2013). Hence, it
revealed that the milling methods and processing temperature significantly affect the swelling
power of flour samples. The higher amount of protein in flour might be responsible for
embedding the starch granules in a stiff protein matrix, which in turn cause the restriction of
starch to imbibe water and limits the swelling power (Rosniyana and Hazila, 2013). The SP was
also found to decrease by the degradation of starch (Heo et al., 2013).
Conclusions
Significant difference was found among the various blends of rice and wheat flours in term of
proximate composition and functional properties. With the addition of wheat flour, proximate
composition including percent moisture, percent ash and crude protein content increased, while
crude fat content decreased significantly. Low fat content reduces the risk of oxidative rancidity,
thus extending the shelf life. WAI, WSI and SP also decreased significantly as the concentration
of wheat flour in the blends increased. This study provided the useful and fundamental
information for the better understanding of broken rice and wheat flours as well as their blends.
So that a value added product concerning health and nutritional aspects could be developed using
suitable blends having some limitations with rice flour alone.
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7.5
Moisture (%)
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
0
20
40
0 = pure broken rice
flour
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 1. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean moisture content (%) of
broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
1.1
Ash (%)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
20
0 = pure broken rice
flour
40
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 2. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean ash content (%) of
broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
Protein (%)
13
12.5
12
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5
9
8.5
8
0
20
40
0 = pure broken rice
flour
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 3. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean protein content (%) of
broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
Fat (%)
1.45
1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
0
20
0 = pure broken rice
flour
40
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 4. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean fat content (%) of
broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
Water absorption index (g/g)
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
0
20
0 = pure broken rice
flour
40
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 5. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean water absorption index
(g/g) of broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
Water solubility index (%)
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
0
20
0 = pure broken rice
flour
40
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 6. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean water solubility index
(%) of broken rice flour (P < 0.05).
Swelling power (g/g)
7
6.8
6.6
6.4
6.2
6
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2
5
0
20
0 = pure broken rice
flour
40
60
80
100
Proportion of wheat flour
Figure 7. Effect of blending wheat flour in various proportions on mean swelling power (g/g) of
broken rice flour (P < 0.05).