AP Psychology
Unit II: Research Methods
3rd Period
Group 1: Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable
than those based on intuition and common sense?
There is more reasoning and evidence to back up the answers from the scientific approach.
There has been experiments and tests and many studies in order to reach the answers and
results that science has brought to psychology whereas intuition and common sense don't
apply to everyone because everyone has different opinion and a different sense of intuition
meaning the results will not be typical and will differ between people.
Group 2: What are three main components of the scientific attitude?
1. The three attitudes: curiosity, skepticism, and humility
 Curiosity- a passion to explore and understand without being misled

Skepticism- doubt as to the truth of something

Humility- awareness to our own vulnerability to error
2. Empirical approach: an experiment observing things carefully based on scientific
knowledge. The end result is what is most important.
3. Critical thinking: is the study of clean and unclear thinking. In order to think critically you
must analyze educated guesses, recognize values that have not been clearly stated,
evaluate affirmation of study, and review conclusions. The scientific attitude prepares us
to think more critically.
Group 3: How do theories advance psychological science?
A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behaviors or
events. Theories are just simply linking facts with deeper principles. It can be used as a useful
summary. An example of a theory could be that low self esteem in a human can lead to
depression. Psychological theories organize observations and imply predictive hypothesis. A
Hypothesis is a testable predication, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject
or revise the theory, for example “People with low self esteem are apt to feel more depressed”.
After construction an operational definitions of their procedures, researchers test their
hypothesis, validate and refine the theory and even can sometimes suggest practical
applications. If other researchers can replicate the study with the same or similar results, then
we are able to place a greater confidence in the accuracy of the conclusion. All scientists use
the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
As a check on their biases, psychologists use precise operational definitions of procedures and
concepts. This allows for replications with different participants and materials, which boosts the
validity of a study. A replication is the repetition of an experimental condition so that the variability
associated with the phenomenon can be estimated.
Group 4: How do psychologists observe and describe behavior?
Psychologists use:
1. Individual case studies: an in-depth study of one person
a. Types of Case Studies:
i. Explanatory: used to do casual investigations.
ii. Exploratory: sometimes used as an introduction to further research.
This allows researchers to gather more information before developing
their research questions.
iii. Descriptive: involves starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects
are then observed and the information gathered is compared to the other
theory.
iv. Intrinsic: the researcher has a personal interest in the case.
v. Collective: involves studying a group of individuals.
vi. Instrumental: occurs when the patient(s) allow researchers to
understand more than what is obvious to observers.
b. Case Study Methods:
i. Prospective: an individual or group of people is observed to determine
outcomes.
ii. Retrospective: involves looking at historical information.
2. Surveys among random samples of a population:
a. Probability samples: each population element has a known, or “non-zero”
chance of being chosen for the sample.
i. Stratified sampling: the population is divided into groups, based on
some characteristic.
ii. Cluster sampling: every member of the population is assigned to one,
and only one, group.
iii. Multistage sampling: you select a sample by using combinations of
different sampling methods.
iv. Systematic random sampling: you create a list of every member of
the population.
b. Non-probability samples: you do not know the probability that each population
element will be chosen, and/or you cannot be sure that each population element
has a non-zero chance of being chosen.
i. Voluntary sample: made up of people who self-select into the survey.
Often, these people have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey
ii. Convenience sample: made up of people who are easy to reach
3. Naturalistic observations: research method used by psychologists which observes subjects in
natural environments; looks at behavior in a natural setting with no attempts at intervention on
part of researcher
a. Adv.
i. Studies things that cannot be manipulated in a biased way due to ethical
concerns
ii. Ex. Studying imprisonment effect in real prison settings makes the
experiment more valid
b. Dis.
i. Difficult to determine the exact cause of a behavior
ii. People act different when they know they’re being watched
iii. Different observers may draw different conclusions
Group 5: Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
THE LAPSES IN OUR LOGIC
Hindsight Bias and Overconfidence:
Psychology often produces results considered to be general common sense by the larger public. To
those who believe this, psychology seems like a fruitless pursuit, and human judgment and
predictions appear to be just as accurate as laboratory experiments. Human judgment, though, is
often fallacious. It is primarily tainted by two factors: hindsight bias and overconfidence.
Hindsight bias, also known as the knew-it-all-along effect, is the tendency to recall events as
predictable after they occur. While reflecting, people will remember correct predictions as being
stronger than they actually were, and they will dismiss incorrect predictions as “just joking” or
meaningless, if they remember them at all.
Examples:
 Meredith feels unsure about a test before she takes it. After learning that she got an A, she
believes that she knew all along that she would do well.
 Two friends buy a lottery ticket. Before knowing the results of the draw, one states as a
passing remark that he has a “a feeling” that they’ll win. They win, and the friend claims that
“he called it”.
 Clouds begin to gather in the sky. You turn to a friend and tell her that it’ll rain later in the
day. It doesn’t rain, but neither of you remembers the prediction you made.
Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate one’s abilities.
Examples:
 A student takes a test without studying, thinking that he or she knows everything, but then
ends up failing, proving that he or she really doesn’t know much.
 Entrepreneurs attempt to start a business regardless of the knowledge that most start-ups fail
within two years. Each entrepreneur believes that he or she can be part of the few that
succeed.
 In a study at the University of Nebraska, 68% of the faculty there believed that their teaching
ability was in the top 25% of all faculty there.
Due to these factors, there is significant room for error. A systematic, unbiased approach is then
needed to draw accurate conclusions.
The scientific method is a process developed specifically to determine the accuracy of statements,
whether they be explanations, predictions, etc. It tests hypotheses with empirical data and provides a
framework for reaching conclusions. It is specifically designed to identify cause and effect by
controlling all variables except for the one being investigated, the independent variable. If changing
the independent variable produces a significant response in the dependent variable, the independent
variable can be said to cause a change in the dependent variable. Experimental design must also
control for chance, confounding variables (uncontrolled factors that may also have produced the
results), and the placebo effect (the tendency of participants in the experiment to experience the
results they expect).
Laboratory experiments, by counteracting hindsight bias and overconfidence which plague intuition,
can provide more accurate statements about human behavior and mental processes. The conclusions
from experiments lead to overarching principles which apply to daily interactions and existence.
Common Misconceptions about Psychology:
True/False; Answers at bottom of page
1. Constant reinforcement (reward/punishment every time certain behavior is displayed) is the
most effective way to encourage a behavior.
2. The mid-life crisis is a common occurrence.
3. People tend to be more attracted to people with similar personalities, backgrounds, etc.
4. Dreams are very important to unlocking the unconscious, especially in young children.
Answers: 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. F
Group 6: Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on
animals?







Animals help confirm explanations regarding many theories to have to do with the human mind
and behavior.
Psychologists use simple- minded animals to observe the reactions to different things; then
continue to apply the same principle to humans who are more complex
Animals have helped explain the basic learning process, sensory process, modes of adaptation,
and basic behavioral methods
Basic learning process
Basic learning process conclusion we confirmed from animal experimentation includes hunger,
reproduction and thirst
Sensory process conclusions are pain perception, vision, taste and hearing
Modes of Adaptation:
o Evolution, development and learning
Group 7: Is it ethical to experiment on people?
1) Medical Experimentation (SBM):
a) Ethical Experiments:
i) All that are involved in the experiment are volunteers
ii) Science-Based Medicine is needed to find new drugs and treatments
iii) Usually only tested on humans after being tested in a lab on animals multiple times
b) Unethical Experiments:
i) Not done on volunteers
ii) Unsafe experiment (untested drug, or other substance)
2) Physical and Mental Experimentation:
a) Stanford Prison Experiment:
i) Ethical:
(1) They were volunteers
(2) They were able to quit whenever they wanted
ii) Unethical:
(1) Guards started treating the prisoners poorly
(2) Some prisoners suffered from depression during the experiment
iii) Arguments:
(1) After this experiment many people believe there needed to be a change in prisons
(treatment of prisoners)
3) Why is it necessary?
a) It is used to truly test a hypothesis
b) We are able to create treatments for diseases and understand human behavior
4) Overall Answer:
a) Yes, as long as the people are volunteers, they are allowed to stop if needed to, it has
been backed by other experiments for safety.
Group 8: Is psychology free of value judgments?
1. Do psychologists have their own values and opinions?
-Yes, psychologists are humans so they have formed their own opinions.
2. How do their values and opinions influence their work?
-What they decide to research and study can be influenced by their beliefs. However, the data
that they acquire from experiments are not biased as long as they choose a non-biased way of
sampling.
3. How can psychologists experiment in a non-biased way?
-Blind Experiments: When a person takes a test and the information from it that might lead to
bias in the results is withheld from the tester, subject, or both.
-Simple Random Sampling: When the subjects are chosen completely by chance, and everyone
has an even chance of being picked.
4. How can psychologists experiment in a biased way?
-Asking biased questions. For example, “What is your opinion on the awful new teacher?”
5. So, after these questions, is psychology free of value judgments?
-Of course psychologists have their own opinions and beliefs because they’re human. The topic
that the psychologist decides to study can be influenced by what their beliefs are. On the other
hand, the data that psychologists collect can be un-biased according to how they test their
subjects.