STUDENT LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
FIVE DIFFERENT MODELS OF LEARNING
BEHAVIORIST THEORY – Related to the study and observation of behavior. What these theorists pose as behaviorism that is
common to the learner: passive reception of information, worker, and active listener and direction-follower.
 Bloom, B. (1956) - Taxonomy of educational objectives and mastery learning.
 Guthrie, E. (1886-1959) - Behavior modification; habits formed and broken.
 Pavlov, I. (1849-1936) - Classic conditioning.
 Skinner, B. (1904-1990) - Operant conditioning (choices).
 Thorndike, E. (1874-1949) - Satisfiers and annoyers.
 Watson, J. (1878-1958) - Emotions as conditioned responses.
COGNITIVE THEORY - Theories related to the study of how the mind stores, processes, and remembers information. What these
theorists pose as cognition that is common to the learner: active construction of knowledge within the mind, generator and constructor,
and active thinker, explainer, interpreter and questioner.
 Ausubel, D. - Meaningful reception learning.
 Bruner, J. - Discovery learning.
 Gardner, H. - Multiple Intelligences.
 Glaser, R. - Knowledge of experts is organized around principles and abstractions with application. Novices knowledge is
organized around literal objects.
 Koffka - Field theory - Success is more important than reward.
 Piaget, J. - Stages of cognitive (stage-related) development.
 Dewey, J. – Philosophy of pragmatism, experiential learning, and reflective thinking.
Behavioral and cognitive learning theories are objective and assume the external world is real and thus the goal of instruction is to have
the learner acquire responses and knowledge that exist in the world (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY - Theories related to the formal experimental rules of how humans study and learn. What
these theorists pose as information processing that is common to the learner: active processor of information, strategy user, organizer
and reorganizer of information, and
rememberer.
 Baltes, P. - Dual Process Model - selective optimization...doing what they have an interest in.
 Gagne, R. - Types of learning in hierarchical order (signal learning to problem solving). Learning to learn which is a takeoff on
Piaget's symbols of scaffolding to move from one level of learning to another.
 Mager, R. - Behavioral objectives.
 Miller, H. - Observation Learning - result of observation, overt responding, and reinforcement.
 Rogers, G. - Gestalt - student centered learning (thinking about how we learn).
 Schaie, K. - Stages of cognitive development (acquisition, achieving, responsible, reintegrative, and execution).
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Theories related to how we learn from each other (modeling and observation). What these theorists
pose as social learning that is common to the learner: active co-construction of knowledge with others and self, co-generator and coconstructor, active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner, and active social participator. (P&T)
 Bandura, A. - Break from behaviorists’ model. Modeling affirmations, self-efficacy and observational learning (visualizing selfgenerated consequences). Interaction of person with environment.
 Daloz, F. - Schema theory.
 Hull, C. - How inner processes interact to produce behavior.
 Jarvis, P. - Role of experience in learning context-inability to cope with the situation.
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY: A constructivist approach to learning assumes that learning is subjective to the needs,
disposition, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings of the learner. What these theorists pose as constructivism that is common to the learner:
inclusivity, multiple world views, patterns and connectivity, context, and meaning.
 Bruner
 Dewey, J.
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STUDENT LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
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Garai, L.
Kolb, D. – Experiential Learning; Learning Style Inventory Technical Manual
Montessori, M. – The Montessori Approach
Piaget, J.
Rorty
Vico
Vygotsky – Social Development Theory; Zone of Proximal Development; founder of cultural-historical psychology
STUDENT DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
1. Psychosocial Theories / Student Development Process Models (Developmental): Address development issues or tasks and
events that occur throughout the life span. These tasks and events tend to occur in sequence and are correlated with chronological
age. Individuals process from one stage to another by accomplishing related developmental tasks or by resolving crisis. This is the
“what” or “content” of student development. The focus is on long-term issues that tend to occur in sequence and are correlated
with chronological age. These are developmental models that focus primarily on intraindividual change or growth.
 Cass, V. (1979, 1983-84) – Psychosocial Model of Sexual Identity Formation
 Chickering, A. (1969) – Seven Vectors Model
 Chickering, A. (1993)- Theory of Identity Development
 Cross, W. (1971, 1980, 1991, 1995) – Model of Nigrescence
 D’Augelli, A. (1994) – Model of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Development
 Erikson, E. (1968) – Eight Stages of Life Long Identity Development
 Helms, J. (1971) – People of Color Racial Identity Model
 Helms, J. (1993) – White Identity Model
 Josselson, R. (1973, 1987, 1996) – Theory of Identity Development among Women Only
 Marcia, J. (1966, 1980) – Model of Identity Status
 Phinney, J. (1990, 1992) – Model of Ethnic Identity Development
2. Cognitive-Structural Theories (Developmental): Address how students reason, think, and make meaning of
their experiences. Development is seen as hierarchical stages with each successive stage incorporating parts of the previous
stage. This is the “how” or “process” of student development.
 Daloz Parks, S. (2000) – Development of an Understanding of Faith
 Fowler, J. (1981, 1991, 1996) – Spiritual Development Model
 Gilligan, C. (1977, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1986) – Model of Women’s Moral Development
 Kegan, R. (1982, 1994) – “Constructive-Developmental” Framework for Ego Development
 King & Kitchener (1994) – Reflective Judgment Model – Describes the development of reasoning from adolescence to
adulthood. (ASHE, p. 424; 436-442)
 Kohlberg, L. (1958) - Theory of Moral Development
 Magolda, B. (1992) – Epistemological Reflection Model
 Perry, W. (1970) – Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development (ASHE, p. 424)
3. Person-Environment Theories / Typological Models (Developmental): Address interaction between conceptualizations of the
college student and the college environment, looking at behavior as a social function of the person and the environment. Do not
explain how one changes or what one believes. They look more at individual differences and the characteristics that are distinctive
to each person, with the idea that these differences have an influence on development.
 Briggs, K. & Myers, I. – Myers-Briggs (Personality) Type Indicator
 Gardner (1983, 1987, 1993) – Multiple Intelligences
 Holland, J. – Theory of Vocational Personalities and Environments
 Holland, J. (1997) – Person-Environment Fit Theory
 Kolb, D. – Theory of Learning Styles and Experiential Learning
 Strange & Banning (2001) – Four Categories of Person-Environment Models
 Witkin (1962, 1976) – Cognitive Styles
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STUDENT LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
4. Humanistic Theories: Concentrate on certain philosophical concepts about human nature: freedom, responsibility, selfactualization and that education and personal growth are encouraged by self-disclosure, self-acceptance, and self-awareness.
They share a common philosophy of the human condition. Development is internally motivated. These theorists believe the forces
of growth are within the person and are facilitated by self-disclosure, followed by self-acceptance and self-awareness. These
theories are used extensively in counseling.
5. College Impact Models: They focus primarily on interindividual origins of student change and the extent to which such changes
are related to attributes of the institutions that students attend and the experiences that they have. (P&T)
 Astin, A. (1970, 1991, 1993)– I-E-O Model
 Astin, A. (1970)– Theory of Involvement
 Tinto, V. (1975, 1987, 1993) – Theory of Student Departure
 Pascarella, E. (1985) – General Model for Assessing Change
 Pascarella, E. (1985) – Model of Learning and Cognitive Development
 Watson, L. (1996) – Conceptual Framework for Student Learning, Involvement, and Gains
 Weidman (1989) – Model of Undergraduate Socialization
6. Sociological Perspectives: Scholars identify problems in the adoption of developmental models for understanding the change
process.
 Bourdieu & Passeron (1990)
 Bourdieu (1977, 1986)
 Dannefer (1984)
 Feldman & Newcomb (1969)
 Feldman (1972)
 Heath (1968)
 Kamens (1971, 1974)
 Kaufman & Feldman (2004)
 Meyer (1977)
 Smart, Feldman, & Ethington (2000)
THREE IMPLICIT PEDAGOGICAL THEORIES
1. Subject-Matter Theory – Also called content theory. Student learning and development depend primarily on exposure to the
right subject matter.
2. Resource Theory - Maintains that if adequate resources are brought together in one place, student learning and
development will occur. A popular measure is the student-faculty ratio.
3. Individualized (Eclectic) Theory – Assumes that no single approach to subject matter, teaching, or resource allocation is
adequate for all students. It attempts to identify the curricular content and instructional methods that best meet the needs of
individual students.
(Astin, 1984)
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STUDENT LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
OTHER THEORIES OR MODELS
Cognitive Skills Theory (Fisher, M., 1980; Lamborn & Fisher, 1988)
Epistemological development (Broughton, 1975, 1978)
Human Capital Theory (Becker, 1993; Paulsen, 2001; Rosenbaum, 1986)
Nine Strategies for Improving Student Learning (Oxford Centre for Staff Development, 1992) - ASHE, p. 470
Self-Evolution Theory (ASHE, p. 424), (Kegan, 1994)
Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Chickering & Gamson, 1987) - ASHE, p. 474
Stage Models (Flavell, 1963, 1971, 1977)
Three Critical Conditions for Excellence (Study Group on the Conditions of Excellence in American Higher Education, 1984) - ASHE, p.
470
Transition Theory (Schlossberg, 1984) –- Mostly based on the individual and what they consider to be transitions in their life.
CROSS-CULTURAL THEORIES OR MODELS
Cross-Cultural Adaptation Theory (Kim, 1988)
Cultural Dimensions Theory (Fisher, M., 1980; Lamborn & Fisher, 1988) - http://geert-hofstede.com/dimensions.html
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Bennett, 1993) - http://geert-hofstede.com/dimensions.html
REFERENCES
Holland’s Theory and Patterns of College Student Success (Smart, Feldman, & Ethington, 2006)
How College Affects Students (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005)
Student Involvement: A developmental theory for higher education (Astin, 1984)
Theoretical Perspectives on College Students (ASHE Reader Series, 2003)
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/pte/theory/studrole.htm
www.freewebs.com/studentaffairs.psychosocial.htm
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~orl/greek-soc/docs/student_development_theory.pdf
Rodgers, R.F. (1990). Recent theories and research underlying student development. In D. G. Creamer and Assoc. (eds.). College
student development: Theory and practice for the 1990’s. (pp. 27-79). Alexandria, VA, ACPA.
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