LECTURE 1:
What is Engineering? “The art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of people”
What are the steps in basic engineering design?
Optimization, time, economics, environment, sustainability
What are constraints? Cost, repairs, environment, resources,
What is the technological cycle? What are examples of Energy organizing and converting devices?
Earth systems: Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere
Earth Cycles: Rock Cycle, Hydrological Cycle, Carbon Cycle, Resource Cycle, Biological Cycle, etc….
What is Sustainable development? Sustainable Engineering ?
What is the “triple bottom line?”……Economic, Social, Environmental.
What is an Ecological Footprint
Energy Use in NA…..40% Petroleum, 23% Coal, 22% Coal, 8% Nuclear, 7% Renewable (2009).
Technology for improvement of Triple Bottom Line
Examples: Dump--->Engineering Landfill; Mine Waste Disposal ---> Mine Waste Management
Failure in engineering for the TBL…….Automobile Fuel Economy over the last 30 years.
Tarbuck Chapter 20
What do we need?
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Air
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Water
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Food
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Forests and wetlands
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Wildlife
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Space
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Metals
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Non-metallic minerals
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Energy
Global resources are currently adequate in most cases
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Costs controlled by stock markets rather than by consumers and suppliers. Transport costs may be less than
difference in labour costs between countries
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Regional resources are limited
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Local resources
Metal, mineral and energy resources
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Canada has a rich supply but no nation is completely self-sufficient
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Mining industry vital to Canadian economy
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Canada one of largest exporters of minerals
Resources
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Must be commercially available
Metallic mineral deposits and geologic processes
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Ore – metallic minerals that can be mined at a profit
Non-metallic resources
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Aggregate and stone
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Natural aggregate – crushed stone, sand, and gravel
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Clays
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Carbonate minerals
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Evaporate salts
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Phosphate
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Sulphur
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Talc
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Graphite
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Asbestos
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Garnet
Non-renewable energy resources
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Petroleum forms by gradual cooking of simple aquatic organisms compressed in rock
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Coal
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Unconventional fossil fuel deposits
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Heavy oil sands (tar sands)
Unconventional fossil fuel deposits
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Oil shale
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Shale gas
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Methane hydrate
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Nuclear energy
Renewable fuel sources
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Hydroelectric power
LECTURE 2
List as many resource types as you can think of.
How much of Canada’s fresh water supply is groundwater? How much of PEI’s?
What are global, regional and local resources?
How does transportation control the value of a resource such as food?
How much of Canada is wilderness? Why do we value this?
Consider space as a resource – Hi rise living or suburban acreage….which makes more sense?
What are examples of renewable and non-renewable resources
What is ore?
What is aggregate used for?
How do diamonds come to the surface of the earth? Where are they formed?
Name some non-metallic industrial minerals.
What are the primary sources of fuel energy?
What are some impacts of hydroelectricity?
Lecture 3: SUPPLY AND DEMAND (Handbook Section C)
What is the current world population?
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over 7 billion people
What was it in 1800?
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1 billion people
What happened to the global population around 1400 and why?
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it substantially decreased due to the Black Plague
What is “doubling time”?
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the number of years for something to double in size/population
Understand why we use: Linear, Power, Logarithmic and Exponential Functions.
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each type is used to model different situations
linear - displacement, velocity
power logarithmic - animal population growth (predators)
exponential - world population currently
Understand the implications of exponential growth (eg. Population, consumption)
What is the problem if resource discovery is linear and consumption is exponential?
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there will definitely not be enough to satisfy the population after an extremely small amount of time
What does the exponential equation look like and what are the terms?
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(A)(e(B)(Time))
A is the initial number of people
B is the growth constant
Time is years from now that you want to know the population for
What happened to increase the growth rate of population around 1800?

people were celebrating the end of the Plague and so had babies. A lot of them.
What does a population pyramid tell us?
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Distribution of age groups and their gender
stages 1 and 2 are expanding
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stage 3 is stabilized
stage 4 is contracting
What do “the experts” say will happen to world population in the next 50 years?
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continue increasing exponentially until there is a very limited amount of resources
then it should begin to stabilize
How much of the world’s oil demand is from Canada and the US combined?
What are the implications of the sudden growth of China and India (and other large populations?)
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supply and demand for resources such as space, food, water, shelter
What is peak oil?

the point in time when maximum global petroleum extraction is reached
How does electrification of transportation help renewable energy consumption?
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people wouldn't be burning oil or gasoline and therefore conserving the non-renewable resources

better to use renewable resources as they are ensured to be available as long as they are produced
What are Rare Earth Minerals and why do we care?


the lanthanides, scandium and yttrium
they are plentiful resources, but are not concentrated in large bodies and are so are extremely hard to mine for profit

since they cannot be exploited economically often they are considered rare
LECTURE 4: Introduction to geology and plate tectonics
READ Tarbucks: Chapter 1: an introduction to geology and plate tectonics
Other Points:
What is Geology, Physical Geology, Historical Geology and Engineering Geology?
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geology - study of the Earth
physical geology - study of Earth materials; seek to understand processes above/below the Earth's surface
historical geology - study of the origin of the Earth and its development through time
engineering geology - analysis of earth history and processes and impact on human activities
What is catastrophism, uniformitarianism?

catastrophism - the theory that the Earth was shaped by random and catastrophic events

uniformitarianism - the same processes that are occurring now have occurred since the beginning of the Earth and have
always shaped the Earth, even presently
What are ways we determine relative age of geological layers or formations?
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relative dating - when things are put in sequence without knowing their true age

the law of superposition - younger sediments are always on top of older sediments
What is absolute dating and how is it done?

absolute dating is using methods such as fossil succession or radioactive decay to measure the exact age of something
How old is the Universe, the Solar System, the Earth, Life on Earth?
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universe - 13.7 billion years
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solar system - 4.8 billion years
Earth - 4.6 billion years
complex life on earth - 542 million years
When did complex life first appear? What is the Period called when this happened?
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542 million years ago
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during the Proterozoic era
What periods included the age of the dinosaurs?
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mesozoic
cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
What are eons, eras, periods and epochs?
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different measurements of time
Example:
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Eon: Proterozoic
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Era: Mesozoic
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Period: Jurassic
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Epoch: early/middle/late Jurassic
What is the nebular hypothesis of planetary creation?

the nebular hypothesis is that the bodies in the solar system formed from solar nebula while rotating around the sun
What are the main layers of the earth model?
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the crust, mantle, and core
the crust is rich in oxygen and silica
the core is rich in iron and nickel

the mantle is somewhere in between in composition
Why is the asthenosphere important for tectonics?

the asthenosphere is the small layer that the plates float on; it drives the process
What are the different plate boundary types?
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diverging - plates are separating, ocean floor is created
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converging - plates are moving together, ocean floor is destroyed
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transform - plates slide past each other without the creation or destruction of land
What are some of the points of evidence for plate tectonics?
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the fit of the continents
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the ice ages occurring simultaneous across the globe
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identical fossils on both sides of the ocean
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similar rock types and structures on both sides of the ocean
What are the key elements of the rock cycle?
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molten magma forms Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are weathered and form sediments
sediments are compacted into Sedimentary rock
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folding and heating of Sedimentary rocks form Metamorphic rocks
Lecture 5: MINERALS – The building blocks of natural solid materials
READ Tarbucks: Chapter 2: Minerals: the Building Blocks of Rocks
What are elements?
Basic Building blocks of a mineral
What are some of the most common elements in the Earth’s Crust
Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium (in descending order)
What defines a mineral?
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has a definite crystalline structure

is a solid at room temperature

naturally occurring
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inorganic

definite chemical composition
What are the main minerals in a granite?
quartz, hornblende and orthoclase feldspar
What is a rock? What are the key components that define a mineral?
A rock is a solid mass of minerals. The key components are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, ordered internal structure,
definite chemical composition.
Understand ionic bonding and covalent bonding (also weaker bonding types)
Name some common ionic minerals
salt
Why is packing geometry important within a mineral?
the packing geometry determines how many atoms of each type can fit in the structure, hence creating a definite chemical
composition
What is a tetrahedron?
Atoms in a pyramidal shape. The simplest mineral form.
What is a polymorph – give and example?
when two or more minerals share the same chemical composition but have different geometric arrangement
(graphite,diamond)
Explain Crystal Habit (What are some examples)?
the external expression of a mineral that reflects the orderly internal arrangement of atoms (the structure of pyrite shows
us something about the arrangement)
What other characteristics do we use to identify minerals?
Lustre, Colour, Streak, Hardness, Cleavage, Fracture, Specific Gravity
magnetics, reaction to acid, double refraction, malleability
What are the common silicate structures?
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tetrahedron
sheet - micas
chain - asbestos
What are some of the other mineral types (non-silicates)
Oxides, hydroxides, sulphides, sulphates, halides, carbonates, phosphates
Lecture 6: IGNEOUS ROCKS - From magma to mountains
Tarbucks: Chapter 3: Igneous Rocks
Other Points:
What are the elements of the Rock Cycle?
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Magma
Sediments
Sed Rock
Metamorphic rock
back to magma
(can skip any of the steps)
What is magma? What is lava?
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
Magma = below surface
Lava = above surface
What is meant by Extrusive and intrusive igneous rock

Extrusive is when the rock comes to surface before crystalizing - creates an aphenetic texture (smooth like basalt)

Intrusive is when a body crystalized under the surface. you get a rougher phaneretic texture like gabbro
What is a pluton? Why are the crystals in a pluton of larger size than lava?
Pluton is an
A structure which is the result of the emplacement and crystallization of magma below the earth’s surface. Because plutons
are formed below the surface, they often maintain higher temperatures much longer than extrusive rock, and as such the
crystallization process is prolonged, so more complex structures emerge as the magma cools.
intrusive igneous structure (see above for why they crystals are larger)
Extrusive igneous features: Lava flows, etc……?

Lava flow (mafic usualy, you get things with the aa and pahoihoi lavas in Hawaii.) also volcanos (cinder cone comp cone
and shield)
Intrusive igneous features: Batholiths, etc…..?
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Batholiths – big big plutons
Laccoliths – like above but smaller, forms n a mound
Sill – horizontal igneous intrusion
Dyke – vertical igneous intrusion
3 Basic Volcanic Types?
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Cinder cone
Comp cone – like continental colcanos in Origon or Washingon
Shield Volcano – usually mafic and happening areas like Hawaii.
Why does columnar jointing form in lavas and sill intrusions?

When the sills cool, they contract into ‘circles’ to save surface area, when the surface area. They cant make circles so they
make polygons instead.
3 components of Magma?

Melt, Volatiles (like water, brine) and any solids that have crystalized
What is the geothermal gradient?

Geothermal gradient states the lower you get the hotter it gets. To a point atleast. Beond that point a little deeper will get a
LOT hotter. This is important in determining if not rocks melt based on depth.
What is meant by decompression melt?

When the rocks are compressed, they are like a compresed snowball, still solid eventhough they are in you hand and hotter
than they should be. However when they become uncompressed for whatever reason, they expand and melt because of
heat and volatile composition.
Crystallization? Understand the Bowen Reaction Series.
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Minerals like olivine crystalize first, quartz last. When they weather it’s the opposite way.
What are some mafic minerals?

Pyroxene olivine and plagioclase feldspar are found in mafic rocks
What are some felsic minerals?

Quartz, K feldspar, amphibole, muscovite mica and amphibole are examples.
Identify rocks as mafic (basaltic), andesitic or rhyolitic (granitic).
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Based off of their mineral content
Mafic = Gabbro and basalt
Andesitic = andesite and gradnodoirite
Felsic = granite and rhyolite.
Igneous textures?

Glassy, aphanitic, phaneritic, pegmatitic, porhyritic, pyroclastic.
Lecture 7: EARTH DYNAMICS
READ Tarbucks Chapter 12 (and skim chapters 11 and 13)
Understand how the Fit of continents, mountain belt matching, fossil correlation and paleoclimate studies led
to Continental Drift and then to Plate Tectonics.
How do we map the ocean floor?
How do magnetic reversals give us a picture of tectonic divergence?
What is the main mechanism of tectonic plate movement?
Explain a hot spot island chain.
What to deep earthquakes tell us about converging boundaries?
What is the average rate of continental movement?
What is meant by isostacy?
What is the difference between a mountain and an orogen?
What are accreted terranes?
What is meant by a failed rift?
Lecture 8: VOLCANOES
READ Tarbucks Chapter 4 and Section D (Geothermal) in the manual.
What are the main types of volcanic eruptions?
Composite, Shield, Cinder
What controls the viscosity of the lava?
Temperature, Composition (more silica, greater viscosity), dissolved gases,
What is Nuee Ardente and Lahar?
Nuee Ardente is the most destructive, is the extrusion of pyroclastic flows consisting of hot gases infused with incandescant
ash and larger rock fragments.
Lahar is a destructive mud flow where water carries volcanic debris rapidly down slopes
What are the 3 main types of lava and what kind of eruptions do they create?
Mafic: Low silica, smooth, thin, broad sheets - pahoehoe, aa, Basalt plateaus, Cinder cones
Intermediate: Medium silica, Composite cone
Felsic: High silica, short, thick, explosive - volcanic dome, pyroclastic flow
What are Ash? Lapilli? Bombs?
All are types of pyroclastic materials:
Ash - fine, glassy fragments
Lapilli - 2 - 64 mm in diameter
Blocks - ejected as hard or cooled lava
Bombs - ejected as hot lava
What kind of eruption was Mt St Helens?
Composite?
What are the benefits of volcanoes?
New land, fertile soils, mineral resources, geothermal energy
Lecture 9: WEATHERING AND SOIL
READ Tarbucks Chapter 5
What are weathering and erosion?
Types of mechanical weathering?
Types of chemical weathering?
What is Karst?
What are joints? Why do they contribute to weathering?
What controls the rate of chemical weathering?
3 Main types of soil?
Which is finer in grain size? Clay, Silt, Sand, Gravel?
Why is clay more reactive with water than silt?
Why would you want rounded gravel vs angular gravel as an engineer?
LECTURE 10: SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
READ Tarbucks Chapter 6
What is diagenesis? List some processes of diagenesis?
What are some important sedimentary environments?
What are the 3 types of sedimentary rocks? Examples?
What is a sedimentary facies?
What is cement?
How are fossils preserved?
What is a shale? A siltstone?
3 types of sandstone?
Difference between a conglomerate and a breccia?
3 types of coal?
Difference between a limestone and a dolostone?
Explain grain size sorting.
What do angular particles indicate about transport?
LECTURE 11: METAMORPHIC ROCKS
READ Tarbucks Chapter 7
What is metamorphism (how is it different from diagenesis or melting?)

It’s the process that occurs with heat and pressure BEFORE melting. It changes the chemical or physical composition or a
material (sort of like high pressure baking)
Explain how fabric is related to directed pressure?

The fabric can change (striations and other features) based off of directed pressure form one area v sequel pressure form
all areas)
How are heat, pressure and chemically active fluids involved in metamorphism?
Heat and pressure:

Heat can cook the rock. Drives chemical reactions. Makes the rock more ductile and then compresses it together. The forces
can ebe so that it completely changes the physical structure of the minerals in the rock (the atoms take up spaces that are
left open to become more compacted by the pressure)
Volitiles:
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This one is interesting; volatiles like water and superheated chemicals in the rock can serve as a method of electron and
mineral transfer. Under the heat and pressure the volatile can contribute to the CHEMICHAL change of composition
(example being the minerals in basalt turning into chlorite to form green schist)
What is contact metamorphism – what is this general rock type called?

Happens at a low pressure but high temperature (outside of a magma chamber or igneous body. As such they are usually
found on the edges of a massive pluton. The type of rock is called a HORNFEL
What is foliation? How does it form?

Foliation is the deformation of strata through directed pressure on a sedimentary rock. Can be an indicator of regional
metamorphism of sedimentary rock.
What is regional metamorphism? Subduction metamorphism?

It’s the process that occurs over a specific changes in pressure and temperature of a certain area. You are likely to find
specific rocks based on the pressure and temperature where they were formed. This type effects a wide area.
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Subduction: this is like regional but because of the ocean subduction, the water gets rid of most of the heat and you have
mostly pressure doing the work (high pressure but low temp) this usually results in blue schist.
What are three grades of regional metamorphism?
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Depends on rock – the two types covered = basalt and shale
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SHALE:
Shale
Slate –
Phyllite
Schist
Gnise
BASALT
Basalt
Green schist
Amphibolite
Granulite
What type of metamorphic rock is formed at a collision boundary?

In a collision boundary you will find regional metamorphism (see above)
Explain the key differences between slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss?
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Slate: Made of mica flakes too small to see. Harder version of shale. Has planer cleavage meaning it looks flat (makes good
table surface). The cleavage is BETWEEN minerals rather then crystals like mineral cleavage
Phylite: low grade, has platy minerals that gives it a sheen. Jas a wavy cleavage unlike slates planer cleavage. High
muscovite or chlorite content
Schist: medium grained rock. Has an even grater amount of foliation. Schist only means the texture. There are quart granite
muscovite schist, muscovite schist etc.
Gneiss: Granular elongations due to extreme pressure. Most common mineral is quartz. The light and dark components can
split into different layers and give a banded appearance. It’s the higher grade achieved by shale.
What is a migmatite?
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When the felsic rocks melt first, they become magma while the mafic minerals just become metamprhic rocks, when the
whole mess cools you get light coloured igneous rocks surrounding metamorphic rocks in a ‘cow rock’ sort of way.
(Pyroclastic Texture)
LECTURE 12: EARTH STRUCTURES
READ Tarbucks Chapter 9
Difference between compaction and distortion?

Compression with equal forces from all sides vs. changing shape due to different forces from different sides.
Define force, stress and strain?
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Force-Puts stationary of objects in motion or changes the motions of moving bodies
Stress-Force applied to a given area
Strain-Changes in the shape or size of a rock body caused by stress
Explain differential stress, compressional stress, tensional stress and shear stress?
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Differential- unequally from all directions
Compressional- shortens the length of a rock body
Tensional - changes the shape of a rock body
Shear - changes the orientation of a rock body
Where is each of the above likely to occur in the crust?
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Compressional- plate collisions
Tensional - rift valleys, plates separating
Shear - near surface, bedding planes, foliations, faults
Explain elastic, brittle and ductil deformation?
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Elastic- recoverable changes
Brittle- breaking, non recoverable
Ductile- permanent deformation without breaking
Three main types of geological structures?

Folds, Faults, Joints
What is strike and dip?
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Two angles that locate a plane in space
dip- angle of depression of plane
strike- angle from north to 90 degrees from dip
How do joints form? What is their engineering significance?
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Fractures along which no displacement has occured
Chemical weathering concentrates along joints
Many mineral deposits are emplaced along joint systems
Highly jointed rocks represent a risk to construction projects
Define anticline and syncline? Dome and Basin?

Up fold, down fold, 3d up fold, 3d down fold
Three main types of faults?
normal, reverse, strike slip
Graben and Horst?
Graben: Central block drops as plates separate
Horst: Raised blocks between Grabens
LECTURE 13: EARTHQUAKES
READ Tarbucks Chapter 10
What is an earthquake?

An Earthquake is the vibration of earth produced by the sudden release of stress.
Focus(hypocentre) vs epicentre?

The focus is zone at which initial displacement occurs, whereas the epicentre is the point above the focus, on the surface.
What are foreshocks and aftershocks? What do they indicate?

Foreshocks are small earthquakes that precede a major one by perhaps days or even years. You can try and predict
earthquakes with these. Aftershocks are the small earthquakes that come after the big one, indicates the adjustments of
rocks in the surrounding area of the focus.
How does a seismograph work?

A mass with a pen or magnet is suspended in a box in the earth, and when the earth shakes, the mass will stay still while
the box moves with the earth, and draw on a roller, creating up and down lines.
Two main types of seismic waves?
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The two main types are Body Waves and Surface Waves.
Two types of body waves? Which is faster? Which cannot go through water?

The two types are P (Primary, compressional) Waves are S (Secondary, Shear) Waves. P waves are always faster and
usually smaller, and can go through anything. S waves can't go through fluids (liquids, gas), including water.
How do we know that the earth has a liquid outer core?
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Because of the S-wave shadow zone that appears when the other side of the earth has an earthquake. No S-waves means it
can't travel through something, which happens to be the core. Therefore, the outer core at least is liquid.
Explain the Richter scale? (How much does each increment represent in terms of
energy increase?
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The Richter scale is a measurement of the magnitude (amount of energy released) of the earthquake. Each increment is a
32x increase in energy and a 10x increase in amplitude.
What is the Mercalli scale?

The Mercalli scale is a measurement of the intensity (degree of shaking based of damage done to humans) of an
earthquake. Goes from I - XII, lowest to highest.
What are some of the main types of damage in an earthquake?

The main types of damage: tsunami, fire, landslides
What causes a tsumami? Why is different from a wave?

An earthquake in the ocean creates tsunami...that's why it's in this section. Giant ripples caused by the earthquake are
forced to slow down and increase in amplitude when going into shallow waters.

these differ frome waves because they are often the result of fault displacement far underwater, this creates a one long
sobig its not visible to the human eye until it reaches shore and creates a large wall of water with tons of volume behind it
What are some ways engineers can reduce earthquake damage?
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I don't know! How am I supposed to know?!
more flexible buildings, firm foundation, piles
detection, warning, evacuation
BIG BALL OF MASS for stabilization
forecast?
That's all I've got.
Eon: Proterozoic
LECTURE 15: GEOLOGICAL TIME
READ Tarbucks Chapter 8
What is meant by relative dating vs absolute dating

Relative dating - is when geologists classify rocks in the sequence of their formation while
Tools for relative dating?
How do we determine absolute dates?

By looking at a rock and comparing its % mass of an element and comparing it to the half life of the element.
What is a half life?

The time required for one half of the atoms of a radioactive substance to decay
What is an unconformity?

A surface that represents a break in the rock record caused by erosion and nondeposition
What are the major divisions of time called? Name them.

Eons; they are Precambrian and Phanerozoic
What are the major divisions (Eras) of the Phanerozoic Eon? Where are we now?

Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, we are currently in the cenozic era
What is used to define the boundaries of “Periods”

Periods are divided by less profound life form changes than as compared to eras
What is the age of the dinosaurs called?

mesozoic
In what period did life get complex (animals with organs)

At the beginning of the Cambrian Period life began to get complex
What is the age of the fishes? The amphibians?

Age of the fish is the Devonian period while the age of the amphibians was the Permian period
What period does most of the worlds coal come from?

The carboniferous period
What animals ruled the world in the Tertiary?

Mammals
What is a possible reason for major extinctions over time?

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Dramatic climate change
asteroid strike
starvation (usually result of climate change)
How did we get oxygen in the atmosphere? Water in the oceans?

a bacteria managed to absorb a smaller cell that used chlorophyll to photosynthesise. This became a symbiosis relationship
where the bacteria protected the little cell, while the little cell fed the bacteria.This successful harmony resulted in a large
number of photosynthesising cells that take water (H2O - dihydrogen oxide) and used sunlight as the power source to
extract the hydrogen for food and release the oxygen
LECTURE 14: GLACIATION
What is a glacier? Ice Cap/Sheet? Ice Shelf?
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Glacier – a thick ice mass that originates on land from the accumulation
compaction and recrystallization of snow
Ice sheets – Glaciers ona continental scale
Ice Cap – Cover uplans and platues these are like ice sheets but on a s smaller scale
How does a glacier move?

Glacial movement begins when the weight is equal to about 50 meters of ice, because bonds between layers of ice are
weaker than the bond within the layers themselves therefore then the stress exceeds the limits of the bonds between
layers, the layers remain intact and slide over one another
Explain the budget of a glacier?
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The budget of the glacier is the net loss or gain of ice that a glacier experiences from either melting or calving. Whether the
margin of a glacier is advancing retreating or stationary the glacier always continues to flow forward.
How do glaciers recede?

Glaciers recede when the flow of the glaciers is not fast enough to offset the ablation thus causing the margin to retreat.
Explain how glaciers pick up material and use the material to erode the ground?
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When a glacier flows over a fractured surface melt water seeps into the cracks and recrystallizes. When the water expands
it exerts a huge amount of leverage and pries the rock loose. It then freezes to the base of the glacier and is carried as the
ice flows.
What are striations? Rock flour?
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Striations: are when large rocks being carried by the glacier scratch huge gouges into the bedrock, Rock Flour – is the
powder created as rock filled ice grinds the bedrock like sandpaper
Major glacial landforms?
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Cirwues, Horns, Aretes, hanging valleys, tarns, glacial troughs
Lateral vs End Moraines?
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End Moraine – is a ridge of mainly till that forms at the terminus of an alpine glacier or ice sheet., Lateral Moraine – Parallel
ridges of debris deposited at the edge of a glacier
What are Drumlins? Eskers?

Drumlins – are teardrop shaped hills that have on steep side facing the direction the glacier was coming FROM and a
gradual sloped side that points in the direction that the glacier was flowing, they are thought to be from when glaciers flow
over previously deposited drift and reshape the material.
What makes glacial sediments different from regular sediments in terms of site
investigation for engineering projects?

Regular sediments are predictable, for example you can drill two bore holes are determine whats between them, but with
glacial sediments its whatever the glacier picked up and dumped there, so you cannot predict the rock/sediments between
two holes even if they're relativity close
What is an ice age? Vs Glacial period?
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Ice age = Millions of years while Glacial period = Thousands of years
Causes of Ice ages? Milankovitch Cycles?

Plates tectonics and the drifting of continents to higher altitudes causing new ocean currents to form and distribute heat
differently causing climate change, Milankovich Cycles - earths climate depends on the shape of its orbit (eccentricity), the
angle of its axis of rotation (obliquity) and the wobble of its axis (precession)