Culturally Relevant American History Pedagogy for Chicano/a Students:
An Annotated Bibliography
Rachel
Wayne State University
ED 7999
Introduction
My first teaching position was on the west side of Michigan, in a rural community
located in the fruit belt. At the time, 27% of the students in the district were students of color,
with 15% of the students identified as Hispanic. The majority of these students self-identified as
Chicano/a, of Mexican heritage.
It was sometimes challenging to engage these students in my American history class, and
I quickly realized that students tend to be most engaged with a curriculum with which they can
personally identify. Sadly, my district-provided textbook was lacking in relevant depictions and
discussions of Chicano/a history. I found my Chicano/a students were underserved by the
American history curriculum. This must be remedied if educators hope to see better educational
outcomes for Chicano/a students. This is especially true as the Chicano/a population of
Michigan continues to grow.
This annotated bibliography contains scholarly work and studies which show a Chicano/a
student population underserved by school policies and curricula. It includes work detailing the
failure of American history textbooks and curriculum to deviate from the master narrative, a
dominant, whitewashed telling of history which does not adequately address the multicultural
fabric of those who live and have lived in the United States. It shows the importance of a
culturally relevant pedagogy in engaging Chicano/a students and improving educational
outcomes.
I begin the annotated bibliography with a section outlining the theory supporting a
culturally relevant pedagogy for Chicano/a students. I then review research supporting improved
educational outcomes for Chicano/a students through a culturally relevant curriculum. Next, I
included the accounts of classroom teachers who have adopted a culturally relevant American
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history curriculum. Finally, I reviewed teacher resources for any teacher who may wish to infuse
his or her American history curriculum with accounts of Chicano/a history.
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Theory
Duncan-Andrade, J. M. (2005, November). An examination of the sociopolitical history of
Chicanos and its relationship to school performance. Urban Education, 40(6), 576-605.
In this article, Duncan-Andrade points to the problems the traditional high school
American history course presents Chicano/a students. Calling it “the story of Mexicans as a
conquered people, virtually devoid of historical, economic, or cultural significance” (DuncanAndrade, 2005, p. 582), it is of little wonder how Chicano/a students may find themselves
alienated and marginalized by the American history curriculum. Duncan-Andrade makes
recommendations as to how to develop a school curriculum which is more culturally relevant to
Chicano/a students, such as the inclusion of a variety of accounts of major events like the
Mexican American war and stories of how Chicanos/as have made positive contributions to
American society. Furthermore, the development of certain historical thinking skills, most
importantly the ability to critically analyze and interpret primary and secondary sources, is vital
to giving Chicano/a students a sense of empowerment. This will enable them to challenge the
master narrative and forge their own understanding of historical events based upon multiple
accounts and materials. In turn, Chicano /a students may actually emerge from American history
courses able to proudly and positively identify with their heritage.
Gay, G. (2004, January). The importance of multicultural education. Educational Leadership,
30-35.
Gay offers multicultural education as a crucial factor which may help remedy to the
achievement gap between ethnic groups. This gap is highlighted by the fact that fewer minorities
graduate high school as compared to their White peers and fewer minorities seek post-secondary
educational opportunities than their White peers. The lack of multicultural education, Gay (2004)
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argues, leads students of an ethnically diverse background to “feel unwelcome, insignificant, and
alienated” (p. 33). Too often, Gay comments, multicultural education topics are treated by
teachers as a postscript or something to cover should time permit. If, instead, multicultural
education was presented as an essential part of courses, this would engage ethnically diverse
students and improve their chances for achieving academic success.
Loewen, J. W. (2007). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got
wrong (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Loewen’s book should be required reading for any American history instructor. His
analysis of many American history textbooks illuminates their insufficiencies and failure to
deviate from any other telling of American history than the accepted master narrative. Loewen
(2007) laments that women and minorities are often a sort of token inclusion in textbooks,
appearing in “Did You Know?” boxes in the margins or short vignettes, all of which seem to
exist only to fill some kind of quota for the publishers (p. 11-12). Worse, Loewen supports the
idea that textbook publishers are irresponsible with the tremendous power they wield in regard to
perpetuating the master narrative of American history. He suggests that these books serve the
purpose of indoctrination and acceptance of the dominant narrative rather than aiding students to
think critically about history. As such, anyone whose story is not central to this dominant
narrative is marginalized by these textbooks. Loewen (2007) worries history teachers too often
feel they have to “defend and endorse America,” especially “in front of minority students” (p.
329). Loewen calls upon teachers to infuse American history courses with myriad primary and
secondary sources and to present students with a more culturally relevant curriculum. He writes,
“students will start learning history when they see the point of doing so, when it seems
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interesting and important to them, and when they believe history might relate to their lives and
futures” (Loewen, 2007, p. 354).
Tatto, M. T., Lundstrom-Ndibongo, V., Newman, B. E., Nogle, S. E., Sarroub, L. K., & Weiler,
J. M. (2000, November). The education of migrant children in Michigan: A policy
analysis report. Ocassional Paper No. 72 (Latino Studies Series), Retrieved from
http://www.jsri.msu.edu/upload/occasional-papers/oc72.pdf.
This report contends that public school policies and curricula which attempt to
Americanize Latino/a students can be quite damaging to these students and can serve as an
endorsement for inequity by disregarding the students’ culture. On the other hand, policies and
curricula which celebrate Latino/a culture can lead to positive outcomes as Latino/a students
therefore feel a sense of validation. The report ultimately calls for culturally relevant teaching to
best maximize positive educational outcomes for Latino/a students in Michigan.
Valencia, R. R. (Ed.). (2011). Chicano school failure and success: Past, present, and future (3rd
ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
This collection provides powerful insight as to how Chicanos/as are underperforming in
school as compared to their White peers and the potential underlying causes. As compared to
their White peers, Chicano/a students are perform more poorly on achievement tests, are more
likely to be held back, are less likely to graduate high school, and are less likely to be represented
in higher education. Of interest to an American history instructor is when Valencia (2011) points
out textbooks as misrepresenting the history of Mexican Americans and potentially promoting
the stereotyping of Chicanos/as (p. 10). This treatment will only lead to feelings of alienation
from both the curriculum and school as an institution. Valencia’s (2011) findings, therefore, are
not surprising – he notes Chicano/a students have more difficulty adjusting in school and found
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school more stressful than their White peers did (p. 26). To better engage Chicano/a students,
Valencia recommends teacher training initiatives as to how to best educate Chicano/a students
and interact with Chicano/a families. He also calls for fundamental changes to curricula and
school policies so school is a place that empowers, rather than alienates Chicano/a students.
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Research
Almarza, D.J. & Fehn, B. R. (1998). The construction of Whiteness in an American history
classroom: A case study of eighth grade Mexican American students. Transformations,
9(2), 196-211.
In this study, Almarza and Fehn note teachers have a tendency to promote the master
narrative in American history courses, which is a decidedly “White” approach to history. For
Latino/a students, this approach fostered feelings of bitterness toward the course in general and
the teacher presenting the content. Many of these students responded that they did not see
themselves represented in the history they were learning and, therefore, did not think the course a
worthwhile endeavor. They would have preferred culturally relevant teaching as many had a
strong desire to know more about their heritage. Their detachment from the curriculum and
resentment toward the teacher frequently led to poorer educational outcomes for the Latino/a
students.
Epstein, T., Mayorga, E., & Nelson, J. (2011). Teaching about race in an urban history class: The
effects of culturally responsive teaching. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 35(1),
2-21.
Culturally responsive history teachers see more positive educational outcomes with their
students of color. By presenting other viewpoints (besides just the master narrative), these
teachers fostered in their students more complex and critical thinking about history. A
curriculum which can so often disenfranchise students of color instead inspired them through the
lessons of how others like them fought for social justice. Epstein, Mayorga, and Nelson (2011)
stress the importance of providing students of color with examples which portray people of color
as “historical actors, and not just victims” (p. 5-6). This point is crucial. An American history
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course can serve to empower students of color by cultivating pride in their heritage. However,
teachers must provide examples where those who came before them acted with courage and
dignity. If the representations presented are primarily of those who came before as only
suffering victims, the curriculum can actually have an adverse effect on the psyche of students of
color.
Kayitsinga, J., Villarruel, F. A., & Tanner, P. E. (2008, February). Educational needs,
aspirations, and expectations for young people in Michigan. Latinos in Michigan, (3), 17. Retrieved from http://www.jsri.msu.edu/upload/latinos-in-michigan/lm03.pdf.
This study found that parents’ hopes for their children in terms of education differ
significantly based upon race/ethnicity, where they live, their level of education, and how much
money they earn (Kayitsinga, Villarruel, & Tanner, 2008, p. 6). Still, the study found most
Latino/a parents reveal a desire for their students to attend some kind of post-secondary
institution, frequently indicating community college programs as potentially meeting the needs
of their children. As this is the case, the authors note that policies regarding the education of
members of the Latino community must be changed to ensure these students have more access to
higher education.
Martell, C. C. (2014, April). Teaching about race in a multicultural setting: Culturally relevant
pedagogy and the U.S. history classroom. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA.
Martell’s work (in this study and in the two others mentioned in this bibliography) is
truly extraordinary in demonstrating the value of culturally relevant teaching. In this study,
Martell followed three teachers, all of whom engaged in varying degrees of culturally relevant
teaching. The culturally relevant pedagogy had a positive impact on students of color and White
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students alike. An overwhelming number of their students surveyed remarked that they better
understood the past experiences of people of color and better understood the multiple
interpretations of past events. Perhaps most importantly, the majority of the students surveyed
reported remembering more from these particular history courses than from any history courses
they had previously taken. They were more adept at thinking analytically and critically about
history. The teachers in the study formed more meaningful relationships with their students and,
frequently, students were better able to learn collaboratively with one another.
Pizarro, M. (Ed.). (2005). Chicanas and Chicanos in school: Racial profiling, identity battles,
and empowerment. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Stereotypes persist in American society which perpetuate the idea that Chicano/a students
are not interested in school and their parents do little to adequately prepare them for school.
Sadly, this is sometimes the belief held by teachers and administrators in schools. This study
surveyed students in East Los Angeles and Acoma, Washington and sought to understand the
relationship between school performance and the identity of Chicano/a students. Their responses
indicated that they often felt disenfranchised and marginalized by school policies and
curriculum. However, when Chicano/a students were given an opportunity to discuss their
feelings and engage in productive dialogue with the researchers, their teachers, and their
administrators, they had a more positive outlook on their future educational opportunities.
Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive schooling: U.S.-Mexican youth and the politics of caring.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
This study of a large, urban school in Houston, Texas is a cautionary tale of sorts about
how policies which estrange Chicano/a students from other students, teachers, and administrators
can lead to a highly “corrosive” school environment “rife with mistrust” (Valenzuela, 1999, p.
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5). One core problem at Seguín High School was a school curriculum which focused on
“Americanizing” Chicano/a students. Instead of having its desired effect, the curriculum instead
eroded Chicano/a students cultural identities and contributed to greater rifts between Chicano/a
students and the other members of the school community. Valenzuela decided to pursue this
study after seeing propositions in Texas and California aimed at the elimination of bilingual
education programs in favor of curricula which mainstream Chicano/a students into the dominant
culture, which she deemed to be damaging and counterproductive. She discovered this was
indeed the case at Seguín High School.
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Practice
Guajardo, F., Alvarez, S., Guajardo, M., García, S., Guarjardo, J. A., & Márquez, J. (2014,
Spring). Braceros, Mexicans, Americans, and schools: (Re)imagining teaching and
learning in Mexican America. Río Bravo: A Journal of the Borderlands, 23(1), 9-41.
The authors of this project pursued a culturally relevant pedagogy for Chicano/a students
by conducting interviews with Braceros, Mexican laborers who were part of the agreement
between the U.S. and Mexico from 1942 to 1964. These interviews reveal a history of the
Braceros as actors, rather than victims of abuse, which is in harmony with Epstein, Mayorga, and
Nelson’s (2011) ideas. The Braceros’ stories challenge the master narrative of Mexican laborers
as complacent to exploitation by showing instead they often were agents of resistance. These
interviews were an incredibly valuable primary source for Chicano/a students for multiple
reasons. Primary source analysis and interpretation are crucial historical thinking skills all
students must develop for more positive educational outcomes in history courses. Culturally
relevant sources such as these interviews affirmed the identities of Chicano/a students and
engaged them more deeply with the curriculum.
Martell, C. C. & Hashimoto-Martell, E. A. (2011, April). Throwing out the history textbook:
Changing social studies texts and the impact on students. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
In this study, Martell, a teacher at a diverse high school in New England, replaced the
textbook for his United States history classroom with reading packets full of multicultural
accounts of history and accounts reflective of a variety of socioeconomic levels. The packets
required students to engage in historical thinking skills such as interpretation, contextualization,
historical argumentation, and appropriate use of historical evidence. The results of the study
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revealed positive educational outcomes for all students, but particularly for the non-White
students in his class. He reported students had an improved recall of information, were
completing more homework, were understanding a variety of historical perspectives, and better
identified with those they studied (Martell & Hashimoto-Martell, 2011, p. 2). Martell (2011)
commented, “I brought in the voices of those who have long been silent and it had a liberating
effect on my students” (p. 26).
Martell, C. C. (2013, April). Whiteness in the social studies classroom: Students’ conceptions of
race and ethnicity in United States history. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Once again, Martell employed a culturally relevant pedagogy in his American history
classes. He wanted students to understand the social constructs of race and ethnicity and how
society alters those constructs over time. In this study, Martell did not avoid the controversial
subject of race, but rather tackled it head-on with his students. Sources which challenged the
master narrative and frank and open discussions with students developed and deepened their
understanding of their own racial identities and the racial identities of others.
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Teacher Resources
Acuña, R. (2014). Occupied America: A history of Chicanos (8th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
This is arguably the most comprehensive textbook available on Chicano/a history.
Authored by the so-called father of Chicano studies, this would serve as an excellent reference
for any teacher hoping to infuse more accounts of Chicano/a history into his or her American
history curriculum. Acuña grew disenchanted with persistently reading accounts of history
which were absent of the presence of Chicanos/as, which led to him writing this book. The text
explores Chicano/a history from its pre-Columbian roots to the present. He stays true to his title,
going into great detail about the indigenous origins of Chicanos/as as central to their identity.
His discussion of exactly who instigated conflicts in Texas and the Mexican American war serve
as bold challenges to the master narrative. What the master narrative refers to as Manifest
Destiny, Acuña calls the occupation of the Southwest. As an interesting side note, Acuña’s book
was banned from Arizona public schools (as were other texts regarding Latino studies) for being
an example of “ethnic chauvinism” and “promoting resentment” (Tobar, 2011).
García, M. T. (Ed.). (2014). The Chicano movement: Perspectives from the twenty-first century.
New York, NY: Routledge.
This is a well-rounded collection of essays about various aspects of Chicano/a history.
Of particular interest to Michigan teachers would likely be the opening chapter written by the
editor about the Chicano movement and Chicano/a historiography, which addresses nine key
questions about the Chicano movement. Also a selection by Nora Salas (Chapter 10) entitled
“We Are a Distinct People”: Defending Difference in Schools Through the Chicano Movement
in Michigan, 1966-1980” would undoubtedly appeal to students looking for regional ties to the
Chicano movement and Chicano community. Salas’s piece details the struggle for greater
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educational opportunities and equal opportunities in not only Detroit, but in areas in Michigan’s
fruit belt, like Holland, Benton Harbor, Dowagiac and Hartford. She writes about the practices
of punishing migrant children in rural areas of Michigan for speaking Spanish or incorrectly
assigning them to special education classes. She describes a student walkout of Lansing’s
Pattengill Junior High in 1970 – an account which depicts Chicanos/as as agents rather than
victims). She also discusses how Chicanos/as struggled during the attempts to desegregate
Detroit’s schools. Chicanos/as were classified as White, which significantly limited bilingual
education funding. The response was the formation of community activist groups like LA SED
and parents groups at Western High School and Webster Elementary School. These groups
pushed for bilingual education, more bilingual educators, and more material presented on
Mexican culture.
Vargas, Z. (2011). Crucible of struggle: A history of Mexican Americans from colonial times to
the present era. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This text is not as accessible to students as perhaps the Zinn and Takaki texts are and,
therefore, like the Acuña text, is likely more well-suited to teachers in preparing to teach a
multicultural view of American history. Also like Acuña, Vargas’s account of Chicano history
features strong challenges to the master narrative. In describing the Mexican American war,
Vargas uses the phrase the American Occupation of California. This can certainly be eyepopping to those who may be more accustomed to phrases like Manifest Destiny and words such
as annexation. Again, like other texts in this bibliography, Vargas’ work is needed to balance
out textbooks’ whitewashing of history.
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Student Primary Sources
Mexican American voices: A documentary reader (S. Mintz, Ed., 2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd..
Of particular emphasis the new standardized tests Michigan high school students will be
taking to is reading for information. The social studies area of the test will require the analysis
of primary sources and often requires the analysis of two primary sources with contrasting
viewpoints. Documentary readers like Mintz’s are therefore extremely valuable in that they
provide a variety of documents with contrasting viewpoints on the same historical events
involving Chicanos. One of the more interesting areas of the text discusses the Mexican
American experience during the Great Depression. In an incident not unlike the Japanese
American relocation of WWII, the Repatriation program of the 1930s, authorized by Herbert
Hoover, deported several hundred thousand repatriados from the United States to Mexico
(though many of them were actually born in the United States).
Rodriguez, M. E. (2011). Detroit's Mexicantown (images of America series). Charleston, SC:
Arcadia Publishing.
A stunning collection of primary sources (photographs, maps, immigration paperwork,
labor permits - many from the author’s own collection) which tell the history of Mexicantown
and the Chicanos/as who came to live there. The captions which accompany the primary sources
are rich with information and stories which would be very interesting and engaging for
Chicano/a students. The author ran the Mexicantown Community Development Corp. for 10
years and is a lifelong resident of Mexicantown. In her introduction, Rodriguez (2011)
comments “I have always been fascinated with Detroit’s history. I was also frustrated to rarely
see any documentation of our Mexican immigrant existence” (p. 6). Her primary focus is on the
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merchants of Mexicantown – those who built businesses from nothing to support their families
with many of those businesses still thriving today. In keeping with the ideas of Epstein,
Mayorga, and Nelson (2011), this is the story of Chicanos/as as actors, not victims.
Student Secondary Sources
Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company.
Takaki’s book is a wonderful way to supplement students’ readings with the telling of
history from multiple perspectives. Of particular interest to Chicano/a students would be
“Foreigners in Their Native Land: Manifest Destiny in the Southwest” (Chapter 7) and “El
Norte: The Borderland of Chicano America” (Chapter 12). “Foreigners in Their Native Land:
Manifest Destiny in the Southwest” flips the master narrative on its head, describing the
experiences of Mexicans prior to the outbreak of the Mexican American war. These people
viewed Americans as foreigners and illegal immigrants who were encroaching on their territory.
It then describes the experiences of Mexicans who found themselves strangers in a familiar land
as the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo dramatically shifted borders - these Mexicans now found
themselves to be in the United States. Takaki details the political restrictions enacted against
Mexican Americans meant to disenfranchise them and limit their abilities to own property.
These laws were not unlike the Black Codes and Jim Crow laws enacted in the American South
following the Civil War. “El Norte: The Borderland of Chicano America” discusses the push
and pull factors for turn of the century Mexican immigration to the United States and their
eventual places in the labor market. Not unlike other blue collar laborers of the era, Chicano/a
laborers began to unionize and strike. Mexicans found themselves the subjects of discrimination,
with segregated housing and schooling. They were subject to institutional disenfranchisement,
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with teachers actively discouraging students to pursue secondary education opportunities. This
could lend itself to exciting discussions with students as to whether today’s schools leave
Chicano students feeling disenfranchised. Takaki also writes about the beginning of the barrios.
These neighborhoods started as a result of redlining, but then became sacred enclaves. Initially
an injustice, the barrios then became a source of pride and community.
Zinn, H. (1999). A people's history of the United States: 1492 - present (Twentieth Anniversary
ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
Zinn’s work offers Chicano students several chapters of powerful refutations to the
master narrative which directly relate to the story of Mexican Americans. Zinn’s opening
chapter - “Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress” - challenges romantic views of
Christopher Columbus and analyzes the impact of the Conquistadors. Later, the chapter “We
Take Nothing by Conquest, Thank God” discusses opposition to the Mexican American war and
the experiences of those most profoundly impacted – the Mexican soldiers and American
soldiers. It strongly refutes this war as a glorious part of Manifest Destiny. Later chapters (“’Or
Does It Explode?’” and “Surprises”) offer descriptions of the experiences of non-whites in the
1960s and the collective movements for civil rights in the 1960s and 1970s. Perhaps of most
value to the Chicano student is Zinn’s (1999) chapter “The Unreported Resistance” which
discusses the campaigns of the 1980s and 1990s of “Latino and Latina activists (not necessarily
Chicano)… for better labor conditions, for representation in local government, for tenants’
rights, for bilingual education in the schools” (p. 615). It also discusses the impact of the
increased U.S. involvement in Central and South American and how this has impacted the Latino
and Latina citizenry of the United States.
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Student Multimedia Resources
Bieber, J., & Delan, D. (Producers), & Belton, D., & Fritz, S. (Directors). (2013).Latino
Americans [DVD]. United States: PBS.
This documentary series is six hours long and covers 500 years of Latino history.
Interviews with famous Latinos and scholars examine American history from the perspective of
Latinos. Of interest for Chicano/a students would likely be “Foreigners in their Own Land”
(episode I), which explores the annexation of Texas and the Mexican American war. Also,
“Empire of Dreams” (episode II) looks at immigration to U.S. from 1880 to 1942. Probably the
most fascinating stories told in this documentary, however, come from “War and Peace”
(episode III) and “Prejudice and Pride” (episode V). “War and Peace” tells the story of the
infamous Zoot Suit Riots, but from the Chicano/a perspective, which is in strong opposition to
the portrayal of the riots in most American history textbooks. It also shares the stories of war
heroes Marcario García and Guy Gabaldon, both Chicanos. Marcario García, the only Mexican
national to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor, was actually denied service at a diner
upon returning home due to segregation practices. “Prejudice and Pride” is an account of
Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Portraying Latinos/as as actors, not victims, is a
central theme in this part of documentary series. Figures such as Dolores Huerta, César Chavez,
Corky Gonzales, and Sal Castro could provide strong role models for Chicano/a students.
Civics resources for Texas students and teachers: Mendez v. Westminster school district of
Orange County. (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2015, from State Bar of Texas website:
https://www.texasbar.com/civics/High%20School%20cases/mendez-v-westminster.html.
This interactive website gives students an overview of the case regarded as the Brown v.
Board for Chicanos/as. The website includes links to video segments about the California case,
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an NPR segment on the issue and interviews with scholars and experts of the case. There is also
a helpful section for teachers, which includes even more information about the case and ideas as
to how to incorporate this court case into one’s American history curriculum.
Esparza, M. (Producer), & Olmos, E. J. (Director). (2006). Walkout [Motion picture]. United
States: HBO Films.
This made for TV movie is rated TV-14 and is extremely accessible to a high schoolaged audience. It depicts the true story of an East Los Angeles high school student named Paula
Crisostomo in 1968 as she becomes active in Chicano groups such as La Raza and La Causa –
grassroots youth movements seeking improved conditions for Chicano students in the Los
Angeles area schools. The pressure and expectation to assimilate for Chicano students was
overwhelming. There is a scene in the film which depicts the practice of flogging students who
spoke Spanish in the classroom. The statistics for Chicanos graduating high school were
abysmal – only one out of four finished, with even fewer going to college. In fact, a UCLA
student in the film notes only 40 Chicano/a students were enrolled at UCLA in 1968. When
Paula is chosen to attend a Chicano/a youth leadership conference, she finds herself inspired by a
dramatic reading of Corky Gonzales’s epic poem I Am Joaquín and emboldened by the sense of
community fostered at the conference. She and the others begin to meet and strategize with how
to gain the attention of the L.A. school board so their grievances will be addressed. They face
the same questions as to their philosophy and strategies as the other movements of the era faced.
Militant resistance? Non-violent resistance? What is the best way to agitate? Eventually, they
decide upon coordinated walkouts of the high schools. With the recent Watts riots serving as a
backdrop, one walkout is met with police brutality and fears of youth radicalism and potential
communist influences. Thirteen people deemed leaders of the so-called conspiracy are arrested,
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becoming known as the East L.A. 13. Eventually, the walkouts achieve their intended purpose,
with the LA school board adopting reforms to address the grievances of the students. The
movement spread throughout the nation and college enrollment for Chicanos/as increased
dramatically from 2% to 25%. The film is great at showing the connections between the
Chicano movement and the other resistance and civil rights movements of the era. The students
hold “Brown is Beautiful” protest signs and engage in discussions about Martin Luther King, Jr.
and the Black Panthers.
Ruiz, J. L. (Producer). (1996). Chicano! History of the Mexican-American civil rights
movement [DVD]. United States: PBS.
This documentary is broken up into four parts and covers the years 1965 to 1975. It
opens with a movement in 1966 of activists attempting to force the government to honor land
grants in New Mexico. The lands had been incorporated by the U.S. following the Mexican
American war and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This event stimulated Chicanos/as and
helped spark events throughout the nation, including the activism of Corky Gonzales, the East
Los Angeles walkouts, the efforts of César Chavez in organizing migrant farm workers into the
UFW, and the rise the third party La Raza Unida which nominated a Chicano for president in
1972. This documentary series is well-balanced in that it interviews many Chicanas in addition
to the many Chicanos.
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Reflection
An element of teaching history that can be particularly challenging is helping students to
understand historiography and how a dominant narrative is developed. In my experiences as an
American history teacher, I have found students tend to be most engaged with texts that
challenge the dominant narrative and challenge them to consult a variety of sources before
developing their own ideas and viewpoints about historical events. This, too, is where I see
students as having the most opportunity to practice the historical thinking skills which are
necessary to developing a critical historical consciousness. Fostering that historical
consciousness in students is what I believe to a core objective for history educators.
Textbooks are too often insufficient in providing students with multiple perspectives of
American history that require them to interpret a variety of accounts and form their own
understandings. Textbooks fail to provide students with the materials necessary for them to
practice critical thinking skills. For these reasons, I believe teachers must go beyond the use of
textbooks in order to be effective history educators. Beyond this, there is a great deal of
evidence to suggest that these textbooks fail students of color on an entirely different level.
Loewen (2007) and Martell and Hashimoto-Martell (2011) have shown that teachers must
deviate from teaching straight from the textbook if they want to engage in a culturally relevant
pedagogy.
Chicano/a students are performing worse than their White peers by virtually every
educational measure – grade retention, achievement tests, graduation rates, and participation in
post-secondary education. This is an alarming trend, especially when one considers the growing
Chicano/a population of Michigan and the United States in general. Studies have shown that one
of the ways to reverse this trend is to engage Chicano/a students through culturally relevant
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pedagogy. There is a need in many Michigan communities, especially on the west side of the
state, to infuse the American history curriculum with more elements of Chicano/a history.
Having students read narratives which are in conflict with the master narrative offered by
textbooks will better engage a group of students who are in desperate need of inspiration in an
institution that can be disenfranchising.
It can be difficult for teachers to change the American history curriculum to one that is
more culturally relevant. Teachers face pressure from school boards, administrators, and parents
to teach in a way that ensures student success on standardized tests. Some of these stakeholders
may reject a more multicultural approach to teaching American history. Also, history curricula
have increasingly fallen under political scrutiny in recent years. The 2014 release of the
redesigned Advanced Placement United States History curriculum was widely criticized. Critics
felt the curriculum “inculcates a consistently negative view of the nation’s past” (Heitin, 2015, p.
7). One way to curtail the perception that a culturally relevant pedagogy may only teach a
negative view of American history is to, as is suggested by Epstein, Mayorga, and Nelson
(2011), depict Chicanos/as as agents rather than victims, providing Chicano/a students (and all
students, for that matter) with stories of perseverance and courage which will inspire and
empower them and, ultimately, provide for more positive educational outcomes.
The research suggests that for students of color and Chicano/a students, a culturally
relevant pedagogy is the best approach to American history instruction. Additionally, the
research shows a culturally relevant pedagogy benefits White students. Martell’s (2011) use of
culturally relevant reading packets had “an unintended goal of helping White students take a first
step toward acknowledging their own racial identity… [and] privilege” (p. 23-24). Martell
(2014) also found the responses of White students surveyed about their experiences with a
22
culturally relevant American history curriculum were just as positive as the responses of the
students of color (p. 32).
23
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