Supplemental Materials
Time Spent in Child Care: How and Why Does It Affect Social Development?
by A. C. Huston et al., 2015, Developmental Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038951
Online Table A
Quantity of Care Findings from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development a,b
Age assessed
Mother rated
Teacher/caregiver
Other measure of child
Year of
problems, social skills rated problems, social
social development
publication
skills
15 months
1997b
NA
NA
24 months
1998a
Behavior problems = 0 Behavior problems = ↑
Social competence = 0 All child care variables
accounted for 2% of
total variance
Observed defiance with M
=0
Observed negative
behavior with M = 0
Noncompliance in CC = 0
36 months
1998a
Behavior problems = 0
Social competence = 0
Observed defiance with M
=0
Observed negative
behavior with M = 0
Behavior problems = 0
Security of attachment to
mother. No main effects.
Qualifiers, moderators
Interaction of quantity x
maternal sensitivity. Low
sensitivity and high
quantity had fewer
children with secure
attachment.
36 months
2001b
NA
NA
Attachment to mother.
No main effects of
quantity.
24 months
2001a
Peer interactions
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
0
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
↑
24 mo = .11
36 mo = .04
Observed play in child
care
Positive = 0
Negative = 0
36 months
2001a
Peer interactions
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
0
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression = 0
Care 6-24 months
Outcome 6-36
months.
1999
Mother-child
interaction
NA
NA
Observed play in child
care
Positive = 0
Negative = 0
Observed dyadic play:
Peer skill = 0
Peer aggression = 0
Self assertion = 0
Observed mother-child
interaction:
Mother sensitivity = ↓
(without quality in model)
Mother sensitivity = 0
(with quality included;
smaller sample)b
Interaction of quantity x
maternal sensitivity.
Low sensitivity and high
quantity had higher %
insecure, inhibited
children.
High sensitivity and high
quantity had higher %
secure children.
Child engagement = ↓
Care 0-3 years
Outcome:
36 months -1st
grade
2003c
Mother-child
interaction
NA
NA
Observation of motherchild interaction at 36, 54,
1st grade
Maternal sensitivity = 0
Child engagement = 0
4.5 yr.
2002 & 2003a
Social competence =
↓ r = -.08
Externalizing = 0
Social competence ↓
r = -.12
Externalizing ↑ r = .20
Caregiver conflict ↑ r =
.16
Observed in child care:
Positive = 0
Negative = 0
Dyadic play
Positive = 0
Negative = 0
24, 36, 54 months
2006
Social skills = 0
Behavior problems = 0
K
2003a
Social competence = 0
Externalizing = ↑
54 months - 3rd
Social skill = 0
Social skills = 0
Behavior problems
24 mo = 0
36 mo ↑ r = .09
54 mo ↑ r = .14
Conflict with teacher
54 mo ↑ r = .13
Social competence = 0
Externalizing ↑ r = .08
Caregiver conflictt ↑ r =
.08
Social skill = ↓
NA
Interaction of ethnic
group x quantity
(sensitivity and
engagement):
White non-Hisp = ↓
Non-white = ↑
Interaction of quantity x
time (mother sensitivity
only):
Sensitivity at 3 yr = ↓
Sensitivity later = 0
Age x quantity
grade
2005b
Externalizing = 0
Conflict = 0
Externalizing = ↑
Conflict = ↑
Social emotional wellbeing = 0
54 months.-6th
grade
Belsky et al., 2007
NA
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = 0
Conflict = 0
Social emotional wellbeing = 0
NA
9th grade
Vandell et al.,
NA
NA
Self-reports:
Risk taking d = .09
interaction for
externalizing and
conflict. With age,
association of quantity
with externalizing and
teacher conflict declined
to nonsignificant levels.
Externalizing: 4.5 = .12,
1st = .08, 3rd = .03
Conflict: 4.5 = .11, 1st =
.07, 3rd = .05
Age x quantity
interaction for
externalizing and
conflict. With age,
association of quantity
with externalizing and
teacher conflict declined
to nonsignificant levels.
Externalizing:
4.5 r = .11,
1st r = .07,
3rd r = .03;
6th r = -.03
Conflict:
4.5 r = .12,
1st r = .11,
3rd r = .05,
6th r = -.02
2010
Impulsivity d = .13
Externalizing 0
a. Relations of cumulative quantity to child social behavior. Quantity is defined as average hours/week from 4 months of age to
age of assessment. All analyses include all children remaining in the sample at time of assessment
b. Where available, effect sizes are given for significant main effects. Except where noted, they are partial correlations of hours in
care with the outcome, controlling for other variables in the model. They indicate in standard deviation units how much
increase in the outcome is expected for an increase of one standard deviation in the predictor. In one study, d is the effect size,
indicating the predicted mean difference between youth with high (30+) and low (<10) amounts of child care experience.
c. The sample with quality in the analysis was restricted to children who were observed in child care. The sample without quality
was larger because it included all children.
Key: ↑ = positive coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05.
0 = no significant association of quantity with dependent variable.
↓ = negative coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05.
Online Table B
Relations of Cumulative Experience in Center or Large Group Care to Child Social Behavior in NICHD Studya
Predictor
Mother rated
Teacher/caregiver
Other measure of child
Qualifiers, moderators
Age assessed
problems, social skills rated problems, social
social development
Year of
skills
publication
In settings with 2
or more other
children
24 months
1998a
Behavior problems = 0
Social competence = 0
Behavior problems = ↑
Observed defiance with M
=0
Observed negative
behavior with M = 0
Noncompliance in CC = ↑
In settings with 2
or more other
children
36 months
1998a
Peer availability
24 months
2001a
Behavior problems = 0
Social competence = 0
Behavior problems = ↑
Observed defiance with M
=0
Observed negative
behavior with M = 0
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
0
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
↑
r = .09
Observed play in child
care
Positive = 0
Negative = 0
Peer availability
36 months
2001a
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression =
0
Positive sociability = 0
Negative/aggression = 0
Observed play in child
care
Positive = ↑r = .15
Negative = 0
Observed dyadic play:
Peer skill = 0
Peer aggression = 0
Self assertion = 0
Hours in center
care ages 1-54
months
Outcome: 54
months
2004
Percent of epochs
in center care
4.5 yr.
2002b
No center care vs.
some (24, 36) or
vs. >33% of
epochs in center
(54 months)
2006
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = 0
Internalizing =0
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = ↑
Internalizing =0
Social skill= 0
Behavior problems = 0
Social skill = 0
Behavior problems = ↑
Social skill= 0
Behavior problems = 0
Percent of epochs
in center care
Kindergarten
2003a
Percent of epochs
in center care
54 months.- 3rd
grade
2005b
Behavior Problems =
0
Social skill
24 ↓ d = -.28
36 ↓ d = -.18
54 = 0
Behavior problems
24 = 0
36 = ↑ d = .20
54 = ↑ d = .14
Behavior Problems = ↑
Conflict = ↑
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = 0
Conflict = ↑
rs from age 4.5 to 3rd
= .08 to .05
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = ↑
rs from age 4.5 to 3rd =
..11 to .05
Conflict = ↑
Social emotional wellbeing = 0
Positive with friend
54 mo ↑ d = .21
Negative with friend = 0
Age x center interaction
for teacher conflict. With
age, association of
centers with teacher
conflict declines
4.5 r = .13
1st r = .09
3rd r = .01
Percent of epochs
in center care
54 months.-6th
grade
Belsky et al., 2007
NA
9th grade
Vandell et al.,
2010
NA
Social skill = 0
Externalizing = ↑
rs from age 4.5 to 6th =
..12 to .08
Conflict = 0
Social emotional wellbeing = 0
NA
Self-reports:
Risk taking 0
Impulsivity 0
Externalizing 0
a. All predictors are cumulative from 6 months to time of assessment.
b. Where available, effect sizes are given for significant main effects. Except where noted, they are partial correlations of hours
in care with the outcome, controlling for other variables in the model. They indicate in standard deviation units how much
increase in the outcome is expected for an increase of one standard deviation in the predictor. In the 2006 study, d is the
effect size, indicating the predicted mean difference between children with no center experience and those with some
experience or, at 54 months, more than 33% of the time in center care.
Key: ↑ = positive coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05
0 = no significant association of quantity with dependent variable.
↓ = negative coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05.
Online Table C
Summary of Longitudinal Studies Examining Quantity of Care and Social Behavior
Study
Age Assessed
Baker, Gruber, &
2-3 years old
Mulligan, 2008
Barnes, Leach,
Malmberg,
Stein, & Sylva
2010
Bates,
Marvinney,
Kelly, Dodge,
Bennett, &
Pettit, 1994
Borge, Rutter,
Côté, &
Tremblay, 2004
36 months
old
Kindergarten
Age of Child
Care
Experience
Quantity
Definition
Not specified
Availability of
inexpensive
child care
3, 10, 18, 36
months old
Average hours
in any type of
child care
between 0-36
months
0-1, 1-4, 4-5
years old
Time in any
type of child
care calculated
for each of 3
“eras”
Negative adjustment
= ↑,
σ2 explained = 2.9%
Multiple
Positive adjustment
=↓
σ2 explained = 2.9%
US; mixed SES;
3 sites
N = 580
Any care vs.
mother
Person most
Physical aggression =
knowledgeable
0
(PMK)
Canada (Random
NLSCY sample);
mixed SES;
N = 3431
Cumulative
hours
Behavior problems =
0
US; mixed SES
24-47 months
Concurrent
old
Bornstein, Hahn,
Gist, & Haynes,
4 ½ years old
2006
Any prior
experience
Type of Behavior
and Direction of
Effect
Hyperactive = 0
Anxiety = ↑
Separation anxiety =
0
Aggression = ↑
Disruptive = 0
Expressive = ↑ for
19-36 months
Compliance = 0
Reporter
Sample
Mother
Canada
N about 14,500
Mother
UK;
N = 1000+
Teacher
Coley, VotrubaDrzal, Miller, &
Koury, 2013
Côté, Borge,
Geoffroy,
Rutter, &
Tremblay, 2008
Crosby,
Dowsett,
Gennetian, &
Huston, 2010
Jaffee, Van
Hulle, &
Rodgers, 2011
Kindergarten
4 years old
5-7 years old
5-7 and
11-13 years
old
Age 4 full-time vs.
none predicts
Parent:
Externalizing = ↑
D = .16
9 months, 2
None, 5-25
Learning
years, 4 years hours; >25
behavior = 0
old
hours/week
Teacher:
Externalizing = ↑
d = .26
Learning
behavior = ↑
d = .18
Physical aggression
Lo risk ↑d = .16
0-1 year old in Any care vs
Hi risk ↓d = -.17
1994
mother
Emotional problems
Girls in lo risk = ↑
d = ..44
Externalizing = ↑
Center, home,
(using OLS)
3-4 years old
both, or neither Externalizing = ↓
(using IV)
OLS (entered care
between 0-1)
Conduct Problems
0-1, 1-3, none
↓ d = -.12
before 3 years Any care
Oppositional
old
Behaviors = ↓
d = -.08
Fixed effects:
Parent
Teacher
US (ECLS-B);
nationally
representative born
in 2001.
N = 6.000 parent
report; 4500 teacher
report
PMK
Canada (Random
NLSCY Sample);
mixed SES
N = 1358
Mother
US; Low SES
N=3290
N for Teacher
ratings = 379
Mother
US (NLSY Child
Sample);
Mixed SES;
N=9185
Siblings
N = 2700+ families
Oppositional
Behaviors = 0
Entered care age 23: Adolescent
Conduct Problems =
↑d = .08
Lekhal, 2012
Loeb, Bridges,
Bassok, Fuller, &
Rumberger,
2007
Magnuson, ,
Ruhm, &
Waldfogel, 2007
3 years old
Kindergarten
Kindergarten
and 1st grade
1, 2, and 3
years old
Age at entry
into either
center care or
family day care
4 (Pre-K)
Center, Head
Start, other
nonparent,
parent;
Age of entry by
yr.;
Moderate vs.
high intensity
(centers)
Year prior to
Kindergarten
Externalizing &
internalizing
behaviors = 0
Aggregate variable
including selfcontrol,
interpersonal skills,
and externalizing =
↑
d = -.089 (center)
and d = -.12 (Head
Start)
Mother
Norway; populationbased Mother and
Child Cohort Study
N=73,068
Teacher
US (ECLS-K);
Nationallyrepresentative; N =
14,162 children who
entered
Kindergarten in
1998
Teacher
US (ECLS –K);
Nationallyrepresentative; N =
9,547 children who
entered
Kindergarten in
1998
Self control = ↓
r = -.07 (for Pre-K,
center-based, Head
Start)
Center, Pre-K,
Head Start,
other
nonparent; Pre- Externalizing = ↑
K vs all others
r = .11 (for Pre-K,
center-based, Head
Start; Not true for
Votruba-Drzal,
Coley, & ChaseLansdale, 2004
3-5 years old
2-4 years old
Votruba-Drzal,
Coley,
MaldonadoCarreño, LiGrining, &
Chase-Lansdale,
2010
8-10 years
old
2-4, 3-5 years
old
Solheim,
Wichstrøm,
Belsky, & BergNielsen, 2013
Yamauchi &
Leigh, 2011
Zachrisson,
Dearing, Lekhal,
Toppelberg,
2013
4 years old
2-3 years old
36 months
old
kids in same school).
Positive behavior = 0
Internalizing = 0
Hours in care at
Externalizing = 0
first
Mother
Interaction of quality
assessment
x hours on all 3
measures
Hours in care at Internalizing = 0
one or both
Externalizing = 0
assessments
Mother
U.S. 3 cities. Low
income single
mothers. N = 204
U.S. 3 cities. Low
income single
mothers. N = 349
Cumulative
hours 6-54
months old
Social competence =
0
Externalizing = 0
Teacher
Conflict w teacher ↑
, Cohen’s f2 = .05
Norway
N = 995
From age 0-1
to 2-3 years
old
Cumulative
amount 0-3
years old
Approach = 0
Persistence = 0
nonReactivity = ↓
Average of all 3
scales = ↓
Parent
Australia
(Longitudinal Survey
of Australian
Children, Birth
Cohort)
N = 5,000
18 and 36
months
Externalizing (with
correction for
Hours per week
missing data), fixed
at 18, 36
effects = 0
months
Externalizing with
listwise deletion = ↑
Mother
Norwegian Mother
and Child Cohort
Study – populationbased.
N about 75,000
6-54 months
old
ES = .04 for every
added 10 hours
Note. Where available, effect sizes are given for significant main effects. Except where noted, they are partial correlations of hours in
care with the outcome, controlling for other variables in the model. They indicate in standard deviation units how much increase in
the outcome is expected for an increase of one standard deviation in the predictor.
Key: ↑ = positive coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05.
0 = no significant association of quantity with dependent variable.
↓ = negative coefficient for the association of quantity with dependent variable, p < .05.