Biology 2 – Study Guide # 4
Chap 34 – Vertebrate Evolution and Diversity - What are the four general characteristics of all chordates? Know the
subphylums in the chordate phylum. Which contains all four characteristics as an adult? Which contain all four
characteristics only as a larva? Which subphylum is probably the most closely related to vertebrates? What is paedogenesis?
What is a neural crest? What are the adaptations present in vertebrates? How are they classified? What are the three modes
of reproduction? What is counter current gas exchange? How does it work? Know the difference in osmoregulation between
fresh water and salt water fish. How do large fish obtain endothermy? What is a pronephros? Mesonephros? What are the
different classes of fish? How do they differ? How are they similar? Know how the fins are arranged and their functions.
What type of skin does each class have? What is a lateral line system? How is the skin used for detecting prey? What
are lungfish? What are lobe-finned fish? Know the 8 superorders in bony fish along with their characteristics. Know the
characteristics found in tetrapods. What are the advantages of terrestriality? Why are these adaptations important? What
is a “fishapod”? What fish characteristics does it have? Tetrapod characteristics? What are the general characteristics of
an amphibian? How do they breathe? What is the structure of their eggs? What changes have been made to their jaw?
What are the three orders of amphibians? Know their characteristics. Know the evolution of the amniotic egg. What are
the following structures used for: shell, amnion, yolk sac, allantois, chorion, albumin. How do reptiles differ from
amphibians? What are the general characteristics for the reptiles (skin, jaws, copulatory organs, lungs, water conservation
limbs, nervous system). Know the history of the reptiles: synapsids, sauropsids, anapsids, diapsids. What are the reptile
classes? Know the general characteristics for each. What is a carapace? plastron? What are the modifications made to a
snake’s jaw for eating large prey? How are crocodilia different from other reptiles? What at are the general characteristics
of birds? What is Archaeopteryx? What are the characteristics that make them both bird and reptile-like? What
modifications do they have for flight? Know the structure (calamus, rachis, barbs, barbules, vane), types (contour, remiges,
retrices, simiplume, filoplume, bristles, downy) of feathers and their functions. What are the five states of feather
development? What are the different types of plumage coloration? What are the costs and benefits of molting? What are
the adaptations seen in birds for flight? (furucula, keel, synsacrum, pygostyle, carpometacarpus, hollow bones). What
muscles are used to raise and lower the wings? What are the three theories on flight? What are the different feet type?
How does bird respiration differ from other animals? What is specialized about bird digestion? What are birds responses
to heat and cold stress? What is migration? Why do they do this behavior? What are the different types of migrants? What
is the advantages and disadvantages of flocking? How do they attract a mate? What are the different types of breeding
systems? What is the difference between altricial or precocial? How do birds perch? What is a ratite? Carinate? What are
the general characteristics of mammals? Know the characteristics of a mammal. What were the changes seen in the
mammalian jaw and ear bones? What are the three types of locomotion seen in mammals? What are the three different
types of mammals? How do they differ? Know the evolution of the mammals. What are synapsids? therapsids? Cyodonts?
Monotremes? Marsupials? Placentals? What is the difference between lactation vs. gestation times between marsupials
and eutherians? What is lactation? What is prolactin? Oxtocin? What is milk? What is the differences in the placenta
between marsupials and eutherians? What is the biogeography related to the rise of mammals? What are the modern
primates? Who is “Ida”? What are anthropoids? What are the early hominins? What characteristics made them unique?
What are the two models for the evolution of modern humans?
Chap 41 – Animal Nutrition - Know the basic alimentary canals? Know the basic mammalian digestive system. Know
how the macromolecules are digested. Know the evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems.
Chap 42 – Circulation and Respiration - Know the evolution of the vertebrate heart. What are the different types of
circulatory schemes? Know the path of blood through the human heart (chambers, valves, vessels). Which carry blood
with oxygen? Without oxygen? Know the cardiac cycle (what’s contracting, what valves are open/closed, time, and
function). Know the cardiac output. Know cardiac control (SA node, AV node – Why the two nodes?) What is the
composition of mammalian blood? Know the factors in blood clotting. Know the different types of cardiac diseases
discussed in class. What are the three conditions for respiratory surfaces? What is the difference between diffusion and
ventilation lungs? What is the difference between positive and negative pressure breathing? How is avian respiration
different from other animals? What controls breathing? What do animals use to transport oxygen? How is carbon dioxide
transported? What are the adaptations seen in deep-diving mammals?
Chap 44 – Controlling the Internal Environment
Know the following terms: ectotherm, endotherm, poikilotherm, homeotherm. What are the four ways to gain and/or lose
heat? Know the origins of the excretory system in vertebrates (pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros). Know the parts
of the human excretory system (kidney, ureter, urethra, bladder). What is the function of the glomerulus and Bowman’s
capsule? proximal tubule? Distal tubule? Loop of Henle? Collecting duct? What controls the kidney?
Chap 48 – 49 – Nervous System - Know the overview of the nervous system. Know the structure of neurons (cell body,
dendrites, axons, myelin sheaths, schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, node of Ranvier, synaptic terminals, ganglia, nuclei).
What is a reflex? What is a neural signal? What is a membrane potential? Threshold potential? Action potential? (know
the four stages) Know the propagation of an action potential (What is a refractory period?) What is salatory conduction?
How do synapses communicate? Know the steps of a chemical synapse? Know the different types of nervous systems.
Know the sections of a vertebrate nervous system (central vs. peripheral, sensory vs. motor, autonomic vs. somatic,
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic). Know the parts of the brain discussed in class. What are the five types of sensory
receptors? Know examples of each. Know the evolution of the eye. Know the diagram and parts of a single lens eye. How
do we focus? What is myopia? hyperopia? Astigmatism? Know the structure of the human ear. What makes up sound?
What parts are used for equilibrium? What is chemoreception?