VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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Melbourne VIC 3000
ISBN: 978-1-925264-10-4
© Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015
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©VCAA 2015
VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1
Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1
Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1
Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 6
Resources ................................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment................................................................................................................................... 6
Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 8
Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 8
Authentication ............................................................................................................................... 9
Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1: How are Earth’s systems connected? ............................................................................ 10
Unit 2: How can pollution be managed? .................................................................................... 20
Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 30
Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 35
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 36
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 38
Appendix 5: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 42
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Introduction
The VCE Environmental Science Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and
assessment advice for Units 1 and 2. It contains advice for developing a course with
examples of teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit.
The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE
Environmental Science Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.
Administration
Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates
to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA
Bulletin.
Curriculum
Developing a course
A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students
to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly
describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration
of each outcome.
Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Environmental Science listed
on pages 11 and 12 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key
science skills must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number
of pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where
students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and
propose solutions to problems.
Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable
students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit.
Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students,
contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses
a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must
include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory
work and field studies. This may involve the use of data logging and other technologies in
both the laboratory and the field, and will also require the selection and use of appropriate
sampling techniques in fieldwork. Other learning activities may include investigations
involving the collection of primary and/or secondary data through simulations, animations,
literature reviews, examination of case studies and the use of local and global databases.
Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Environmental Science; they enable students
to explore concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method.
Common to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key
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aspects that are central to the study design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas
and using evidence.
Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but
findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment
tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are
comparable in scope and demand.
Scientific inquiry focus
The VCE Environmental Science Study Design enables students to engage with sciencerelated issues by building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and
evaluate scientific investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how
science works as a process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve
collecting and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.
Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to
critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and
read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.
The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied
in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media.
Unit
Concept
Issues
1
Cycling of matter across systems where
waste outputs from one system become
inputs for another system
Recycling and purification of sewage as a source of
potable water for human consumption
Composting
2
Setting of safety standards based on
concentrations that are hazardous for
living organisms
Re-mineralisation of desalinated water for human
drinking purposes, and in accordance with local
water supply specifications
Fluoridation of water supplies
Public swimming pool regulations
The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important
feature of the VCE Environmental Science Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature
of studying science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual
understanding. The VCE Environmental Science Study Design is structured under a set of
unit questions and area of study questions. These questions are open-ended to enable
students to engage in critical and creative thinking about the environmental science
concepts identified in the key knowledge and to encourage students to ask their own
questions about what they are learning. In responding to these questions, students
demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of different concepts to practical
applications.
Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in
the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to
develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a
particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to
students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies,
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ecosystems or fieldwork activities. Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problembased learning approach to develop scientific skills and understanding.
Designing scientific investigations
Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Environmental Science.
Research questions of interest may be investigated through a range of research
methodologies including experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should
be collected in order to test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends
and relationships in data and to draw evidence-based conclusions.
An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between
variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated
and which will be controlled.
The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:
research
question
Topic selection phase
problem
definition
report
Reporting phase
Planning phase
experimental
design
evaluation
data
collection
and analysis
Investigation phase
Topic selection phase
The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or
question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a
question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical
problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified
students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from
brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an
appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.
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A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in
Appendix 1.
In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may
not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work
directly with their research questions.
Planning phase
Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their
reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the biological concepts
involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the
design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies and suggests how
possible safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues.
In planning an experimental investigation students will formulate a hypothesis that will be
tested by the collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation
outcomes based on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent,
dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables
may or may not affect the outcome. Students should be able to explain how they expect that
the evidence they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning an
investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students
should learn the correct use of scientific conventions, including the use of standard notation
and SI units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.
A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 2.
Investigation phase
In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative
data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation,
fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note
any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be
recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the
investigation.
Reporting phase
An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or
relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the biological phenomenon
being investigated. For VCE Environmental Science, the analysis of experimental data
requires a qualitative treatment of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and
random and systematic errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1.
Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or
problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider
how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make
reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and
uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be
identified and explained.
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For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence
will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead
the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the
student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence
alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors.
The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are
recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms
including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the
investigation.
For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1.
Maintenance of a logbook
Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the
student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example,
contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting
back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical
worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a
scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.
The logbook may be digital or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and
may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments;
results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at
the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in
short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations and other student digital records and
presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts;
web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of
simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work
completed outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order.
Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be
acknowledged and/or referenced.
Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.
Fieldwork
Fieldwork can be undertaken in a range of contexts. Schools with limited access to natural
ecosystems could use sections of gardens, particularly soil and leaf litter or artificial aquatic
ecosystems in aquaria. However, wherever possible, investigations of such ecosystems
should be supported by fieldwork in local natural ecosystems such as the local stream,
remnant vegetation or parklands. If using local or state parks, regulations regarding activities
and the collection of organisms need to be checked and followed. Activities should be
planned to create minimal impact on the ecosystem and/or environment under investigation.
Investigations related to case studies may involve students visiting commercial or industrial
sites. All health and safety regulations must be followed and teachers are advised to contact
sites prior to arrival to ascertain possible risks and to review risk management procedures.
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Student safety and wellbeing
When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health
and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative
compliance (for example, privacy of information and copyright); sensitivity to cultural
differences and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to personal use of natural
resources); adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example,
following national park regulations); respect for persons and differences in opinions;
sensitivity to student views on the use of animals in research (for example, providing
alternatives to the use of bioassays and bioindicators in pollution investigations).
For more detail regarding legislation and compliance, refer to pages 8–9 of the Study
Design.
Employability skills
The VCE Environmental Science study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a
range of learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of
the content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills
through their learning activities.
The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising;
Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and
Learning.
The table (Appendix 5) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or
non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within
the VCE study.
Resources
A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list
includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject
associations and professional organisation.
Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it:
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identifies opportunities for further learning
describes student achievement
articulates and maintains standards
provides the basis for the award of a certificate.
As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable the demonstration of the achievement of
an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory completion of a unit.
The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are
extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE
Studies published on the VCAA website.
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VCE assessment
will be valid
This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the
outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced
way and without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system.
The overarching concept of validity is elaborated as follows.
VCE assessment
should be fair and
reasonable
Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools,
government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and
achievement of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable
and transparent.
The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers
in each study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments
should not assess learning that is outside the scope of a study design.
Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test,
project, practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational
schedule) should give students clear instructions. It should be administered
under conditions (degree of supervision, access to resources, notice and
duration) that are substantially the same for all students undertaking that
assessment.
Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of
external review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment
results are fair and comparable across the student cohort for that study.
VCE assessment
should be
equitable
Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain
groups of students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic
background, physical disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location.
Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar
conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This
may be the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for
assessment of an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a
different time due to a student’s absence.
VCE assessment
will be balanced
The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to
provide a range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts
and modes the knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the
curriculum. This assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to
demonstrate different levels of achievement specified by suitable criteria,
descriptors, rubrics or marking schemes.
Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results
from a variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a
study. Students may be required to respond in written, oral, performance,
product, folio, multimedia or other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive
nature of a study or group of related studies.
VCE assessment
will be efficient
The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a
robust judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the
study design. Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of
precision with those of efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload
and/or stress that unduly diminish the performance of students under fair and
reasonable circumstances.
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Scope of tasks
For Units 1–4 in all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching
and learning program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that
program. They must be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe.
Points to consider in developing an assessment task:
1. List the key knowledge and key skills.
2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the study design.
It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however,
teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand.
3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and
design the criteria and a marking scheme
4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key
knowledge and key skills outlined in the study design and provide for different learning
styles.
5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several
considerations including:
 the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the
outcome
 the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task
 the likely length of time required for students to complete the task
 when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for
students.
Units 1 and 2
The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision.
Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA.
Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or
other indicators.
In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for
each outcome in accordance with the study design.
Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key
knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks
do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of
an outcome.
A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of
assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment
tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design.
Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of
each outcome in the units.
There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the
units in the Study Design.
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Authentication
Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is
the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed
outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to
completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of
records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her
understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work.
If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a
breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult
to resolve, the following strategies are useful:
 Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to
students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or
electronically without due care.
 Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the
teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss
aspects of the work with the student.
 Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an
early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research.
 Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development.
 Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use
student work from the previous year.
 Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects
the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency
of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to
authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible
breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work
between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and
the implementation of appropriate action.
 Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show
the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can
provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the
authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a
family member.
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Learning activities
Unit 1: How are Earth’s systems connected?
The sequencing of learning activities and undertaking of fieldwork may be influenced by the
availability of resources, physical conditions of local ecosystems and weather conditions.
Area of Study 1: How is life sustained on Earth?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Compare the processes and
timeframes for obtaining the
key inputs required for life on
Earth, describe strategies for
the minimisation of waste
product outputs, and explain
how Earth’s four systems
interact to sustain life.
 construct an annotated timeline of Earth's age to indicate key evidence for
the arrival of key organisms, including bacteria, cyanobacteria
(stromatolites), plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, first
mammals, Java man, Peking woman, Australopithecus boisei,
Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons, modern-day humans
 construct a scaled model of Earth, colour coding the characteristics of its
layers
 use a Venn diagram to identify the unique features of Earth’s four major
systems and the major interactions between the systems
 analyse interactions between Earth’s four systems through a case study:
‘Parachuting Cats – History or Hoax?’
 convert the following research questions into hypotheses:
 Are some types of soils more porous than others?
 Is the rate of photosynthesis dependent on temperature?
 Is the rate of respiration affected by humidity?
 Which compost materials are most effective as compost ingredients?
 Are younger people more interested in recycling/ composting/ land
management than older people?
 Are fertilisers more effective in some types of soils than others?
 How well do different soils act as water purifiers?
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design and perform experiments to investigate how changing a biotic or
abiotic factor in one of Earth’s spheres affect the other spheres; examples
of investigations include: whether increased carbon environments increase
photosynthetic rates (atmosphere); testing ‘companion planting’
effectiveness (biosphere); dumping of salt into a stream (hydrosphere); or
changing the number of earthworms or type of fertiliser used in soils
(lithosphere)
imagine a world without humans; construct a graphic that compares a
world with and without humans in terms of Earth’s four spheres
design and perform experiments to compare the properties of different
types of soils: water permeability; water content; pH; salinity; ability for
different seeds to germinate; percentage organic matter, nitrate, sulfate or
phospate content
design and perform experiments to compare the quality of different water
samples: pH; temperature; dissolved oxygen content; total dissolved
solids; nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, sulfates); biological indicators
(various measures of macroinvertebrate or fish diversity)
consider the question: ‘Is methodology more important than a conclusion?’
with respect to an experiment you have undertaken
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design and perform experiments to compare the quality of different soil
samples: pH; salinity; available water capacity; infiltration; aggregate
stability (for example, capacity of a soil to withstand raindrops);
earthworms; soil enzymes; total organic carbon content; particulate organic
matter content; nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, sulfates)
analyse graphs showing the different wavelengths of energy from the Sun
that travel to Earth, categorising them as ultraviolet, infrared and visible
light; identify the relative proportions that penetrate the atmosphere and
are then absorbed, stored, reflected, or leave Earth’s atmosphere
set up two aquaria with leaf litter and place worms into one of these, then
observe the changes in the tank over time: Does the leaf litter in each
aquarium decompose at the same rate? Where does the matter go?
Where does the energy go?
identify in which of Earth’s four major systems some of the physical,
chemical and biological processes in biogeochemical cycles operate; for
example, evaporation in the water cycle (hydrosphere → atmosphere);
denitrification in the nitrogen cycle (biosphere → atmosphere);
sequestration in the carbon cycle (atmosphere → biosphere →
lithosphere); and decomposition in the phosphorus cycle (biosphere →
lithosphere)
research and annotate maps of Earth’s surface to show key locations of
the outputs (for example, coal; oil; gas; phosphate rocks) of the different
cycles; see http://educationportal.com/academy/lesson/biogeochemicalcycling-and-the-phosphorus-cycle.html
investigate the energy potential held in a potato/lemon and discuss how
different energy conversions can occur
draw a flow diagram to show how energy and matter move through the
human body when a meal is consumed or alter when a candle is burned,
identifying the state of matter (gas, liquid or solid) and the energy
transformations occurring at each stage of the flow diagram
use NASA data to explore fluxes in radiation from the Earth in different
seasons; see http://amser.org/index.php?P=AMSER-ResourceFrame&resourceId=14945
explore how energy flows through different types of ecosystems using an
online simulation; see (modelling ecosystems)
http://glencoe.mheducation.com/sites
/0078695104/student_view0/unit1/chapter2/virtual_labs.html#
use a graphic organiser to illustrate the main sources of the essential
inputs (energy, nutrients, air and water) required for life
design and perform experiments to determine the factors that affect
photosynthetic rates and plant growth; for example, level of carbon dioxide
or oxygen, light intensity, wavelength of light, temperature
construct a table that compares examples of different organisms that utilise
different methods of generating energy (photosynthesis, chemosynthesis,
aerobic and anaerobic respiration); identify inputs and outputs of each
energy-generating process
experimentally investigate yeast growth, with and without sugar, to explore
inputs and outputs, and processes of energy production; see
www.bioedonline.org/lessons-and-more/lessons-by-topic/humanorganism/food-nutrition-and-energy/energy-for-life/
debate that ‘sewage can be treated to be drinkable’
design and perform experiments to investigate the decomposition rates of
different types of food scraps
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comment on the quote by Ronald Wright, from A Short History of Progress
(2005), that ‘If civilization is to survive, it must live on the interest, and not
the capital, of nature’ in terms of inputs and outputs for life
 organise a field trip to a recycling plant (for example, sewage, polymers,
metal, household refuse) and summarise processes using a graphic
organiser
Detailed example
PARACHUTING CATS – HISTORY OR HOAX?
Aims:
 To investigate the interactions between Earth’s four systems by examining a case study.
 To explore how solutions to one problem may generate new problems, which then require new solutions.
 To examine the nature of evidence.
Background information for teachers
A ‘classic’ example of solutions causing different problems from those that they initially solved is illustrated by
the ‘parachuting cats’ case. The case is also interesting because a number of versions can be found on the
Internet that include contradictory information and disputed ‘facts’.
For Activity 1 in this extended example, students will use the most popular, but disputed, version of the case to
investigate relationships between Earth’s systems:
In the early 1950s, there was an outbreak of malaria among the Dayak people in Borneo. The World
Health Organization (WHO) organised indoor residual spraying campaigns in many countries around the
world, including Borneo. The campaigns involved spraying houses with DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) to kill the mosquitoes that transmitted malaria. The mosquitoes died and
the incidence of malaria decreased significantly.
However, there were side effects. One of the first effects was that the thatched roofs of people's houses
began to fall down. This occurred because the DDT was also killing a parasitic wasp that ate thatch-eating
caterpillars. Without the wasps to eat them, there were more and more thatch-eating caterpillars. In
addition, the wasps that died from being poisoned by DDT were eaten by gecko lizards, which were then
eaten by cats. The cats started to die, the rats flourished, and the Dayak people were threatened by
outbreaks of two serious diseases carried by the rats: sylvatic plague and typhus. To solve these
problems, the WHO parachuted live cats into Borneo.
Points of dispute relate to the methods of DDT delivery (aeroplane versus local spraying), the number of cats
delivered to Borneo and the purpose of their delivery; the mechanism for the widespread death of cats; the
reason for the proliferation of rats; and whether typhus and plague actually occurred.
For Activity 2, students will use a more reliable source of information about the case to explore the nature of
evidence.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation
For Activity 1, teachers should make available to students a list of events related to the most popular, although
disputed, ‘parachuting cats’ case in the following order:
 Rats brought plague and typhus
 Lizards ate wasps containing DDT
 Thatched (grass) roofs of houses collapsed
 Caterpillars increased
 Rats increased
 Cats died
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 Rats died
 Lizards disappeared
 Mosquitoes were wiped out
 Lizard numbers decreased
 Wasp numbers decreased (dead wasps stored DDT in their bodies)
 Caterpillars ate thatched (grass) roofs of houses
 WHO (World Health Organization) financed and supported over 14,000 cats being parachuted in to Borneo
 Cats caught lizards containing DDT
 WHO (World Health Organization) financed and sent DDT to Borneo
Health, safety and ethical notes
There are no issues.
Procedure
Activity 1: Interactions between Earth’s systems
Students:
 work in small groups to sequence the jumbled set of events into chronological order
 identify how the four spheres are associated with different events in the ‘parachuting cats’ case
 suggest alternative solutions.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
A series of four to eight graded questions could be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:
1. Connect: Draw a food web to illustrate relationships between living things involved in the ‘parachuting
cats’ case.
2. Identify: Outline how each of Earth’s major systems (atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere) are involved in the ‘parachuting cats’ case.
3. Analyse: What questions would you need to ask and what information would you require in order to
determine whether malaria is ‘worse’ for a community than plague or typhus?
4. Evaluate: How could the unintended effects associated with the use of DDT have been avoided?
5. Predict: Draw a flow chart to illustrate what could have happened if no intervention was taken to treat the
outbreak of malaria.
6. Imagine: What problems could the ‘parachuting cats’ solution generate?
7. Propose: Suggest alternative solutions to solving the malaria problem.
Teaching notes
A correct order of events is listed below:l
 WHO (World Health Organization) financed and sent DDT to Borneo
 Mosquitoes were wiped out
 Wasp numbers decreased (dead wasps stored DDT in their bodies)
 Caterpillars increased
 Caterpillars ate thatched (grass) roofs of houses
 Thatched (grass) roofs of houses collapsed
 Lizards ate wasps containing DDT
 Lizard numbers decreased
 Cats caught lizards containing DDT
 Lizards disappeared
 Cats died
 Rats increased
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 Rats brought plague and typhus
 WHO (World Health Organization) financed and supported over 14,000 cats being parachuted in to Borneo
 Rats died
Activity 2: Examining evidence
A number of reports related to this case study are available on the internet, and students may compare different
accounts to consider the authority of sources and the nature of evidence. The following article provides an
overview of the case and some of the associated issues related to points of dispute:
‘Parachuting Cats and Crushed Eggs – The Controversy over the Use of DDT to Control Malaria’,
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2636426/
Points of dispute include:
 only twenty cats were dropped in a container with other provisions to one very small village in the Highlands
of Borneo on one occasion, and they were dropped for entirely different reasons than to control a rat
poplation (compared with alternative versions that 14,000 cats were parachuted into Borneo)
 the claims that the biomagnification of DDT caused the cat deaths has never been verified; the cause of
death of the original cats was from licking their fur and ingesting DDT – not from eating the lizards that had
eaten the wasps that had been killed by DDT
 the proliferation of rats was more likely to due to environmental conditions and not lack of cats
 there were no reported cases of typhus except for one reported outbreak of Bolivian fever (compared with
reports of outbreaks of typhus and/or plague).
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
Students should work in groups to suggest how sources of information can be authenticated and verified.
Guiding questions could include:
 What is the difference between source verification and authentication?
 Complete the following table in relation to elements of different versions of the ‘parachuting cats’ case study:
Opinion






Anecdote
Evidence
How can reported WHO actions be verified?
Where can records of disease outbreaks, epidemics and pandemics be sourced?
How are outbreaks of disease tracked?
Do cats eat lizards?
What is biomagnification?
Is the opinion of an individual less reliable than a statement from an organisation?
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Area of Study 2: How is Earth a dynamic system?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Describe the flow
of matter and
energy, nutrient
exchange and
environmental
changes in
ecosystems across
Earth’s four
systems over
different time
scales.
 introduce ‘systems thinking’ by being part of a class ‘Triangular Connections’ simulation
activity
 analyse a monitoring project to identify the key elements of an investigation and their key
features and to differentiate between a hypothesis, a question, and a prediction, for
example a mangrove wetlands project presented as a poster; see
www.cbd.int/iyb/doc/celebrations/iyb-TrinidadTobago-SymposiumPoster.pdf
 draw a system diagram or concept map for a local site that shows: the supra-systems;
examples of sub-systems; and the interactions between systems, including inputs for life,
processes that act upon them, and the outputs produced by life
 perform an aquarium investigation that explores differences between open, semipermeable and closed systems; see www.beg.utexas.edu/education/
aquitank/tank01.htm
 explore abrupt changes such as volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis on the
atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere
 explore causal relationships such as linear, cyclical, domino, relational, mutual; see
www.cfa.harvard.edu/smg/Website/UCP/causal/causal_types.html
 conduct fieldwork to investigate environmental science concepts: choose a local area (for
example, wetland, woodland, waterway or parkland) as the investigation focus; collect
quantitative data on an abiotic factor (for example, intensity of light, proportion of
shade/tree cover, and soil moisture) using transects and quadrats, and compare and
collate class results; collect qualitative data about what you observed while collecting the
quantitative data; if available, record the history of the use of the site; seek user
experience of the area to see how qualitative and quantitative data differ and can
complement each other, and to consider how the environment has changed over time
 Comment on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s quote, from The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes:
‘You see but you do not observe’ in terms of the importance of careful observation in the
field or in the laboratory
 use the jigsaw research method to construct and share summary tables of the impacts to
survival of living things for each of the environmental changes from each of the time
scales (investigate only one change from each time scale, for example El Nino Southern
Oscillation; desertification; or Milankovitch cycles); relate the impacts on survival to the
four key Earth systems
 use an interactive applet to visualise day/night, seasons and effects of the different parts
of the Milankovitch cycle; see
http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/climatechange/observations/lesson6/earthorbit.html
 use an interactive applet visualising the Milankovitch cycle to graph ice core data that
shows Earth’s temperatures over 400,000 years; explore glacial melting and growth
patterns
http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/climatechange/nav/lessonplans/Unit2/MilankovitchLessonPlan
.pdf
 access AuSIS materials to investigate Earth events, for example seismic waves and
quake catchers, and to determine earthquake location and magnitude
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Detailed example
TRIANGULAR CONNECTIONS: WHAT IS ‘SYSTEMS THINKING’ ABOUT?
Aim
To introduce the concept of ‘systems thinking’ through a physical simulation involving students acting as
individual components of a system.
Introduction
The complexities of Earth as a system of four interrelated spheres (atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere) and the interdependencies of various elements between and within each system can be physically
modelled in various ways. In this activity, students each represent an element within a system; some
connections between elements within the system may be relatively strong, while others are weak. Any change in
one element of the system can affect the whole system, sometimes in unpredictable ways.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation:
 An understanding of Earth as four interconnected systems, and bio-geochemical cycles, covered in Unit 1
Area of Study 1.
 If the basic concept of ‘systems thinking’ has already been covered, than teachers may use this activity to
develop deeper thinking about the effects of changes within systems in terms of intra- and inter-system
functionality and influences.
 If the activity is not taking place outdoors, then the classroom must be cleared so that students have space
to walk around.
Health, safety and ethical notes
There are no issues.
Procedure:
 Students stand around in a circle outdoors or in a cleared classroom to represent elements (each student) in
a system (the circle of students).
 Each student silently chooses two people in the room to be their ‘influencers’; at no time during the activity
should the ‘influencers’ be known to anyone else.
Activity 1: A simple system:
Students are instructed that when the teacher says ‘go’, each student should move so that they are equally
distant from their two ‘influencers’. After 5 minutes the teacher will say ‘stop’. Students record their observations
in terms of the stability of the ‘system’.
Activity 2: Effects of system change:
Activity 1 is repeated, except that students choose two different ‘influencers’ and after 5 minutes when the
teacher says ‘stop’ only those students with <a selected particular characteristic chosen by the teacher and not
previously disclosed to students, for example, an item of red clothing or blond hair> stop while everyone else
keeps moving so that they remain equidistant from their two ‘influencers’. Students observe and record what
happens In terms of system stability.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
A series of five to eight graded questions should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:
1. Identify: The simulation included ‘influencers’. Identify the ‘influencers’ in a selected bio-geochemical cycle.
2. Explain: How are the ‘stop’ instructions in the simulation related to an aspect of a bio-geochemical cycle or
one of Earth’s four spheres?
3. Classify: All systems must include elements, interconnections and a function or purpose. Is the water cycle
a system? Why or why not?
4. Apply: In what ways are your class of students a system? In what ways are your class of students not a
system?
5. Connect: Why are systems so complex? Refer to the simulation ‘triangles’ and their equivalent elements in
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bio-geochemical cycles or one of Earth’s four spheres to explain your answer.
6. Synthesise: Why do systems fluctuate? Use the results from your experiment as an analogy to explain
fluctuations in either of the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere or lithosphere.
7. Create: Draw a concept map to illustrate how interconnections occur within and between Earth’s four
spheres.
8. Imagine: Explain how relationships within systems could change over time.
Teaching notes:
 The simulation could be extended by allocating four students to be ‘observers’ in each corner of the room or
at four different points outside the circle and away from the rest of the students. Their role is to determine
which ‘triangles’ are connected, and to explain how they represent particular elements in a cycle and how
these influence each other within the system. This also reflects the complexity of systems and the difficulty
in being able to identify all relationships within systems.
 The effects of changes in relationships, and delays, within systems can be explored by extending the
activity. For example a group could be asked to change one of their ‘influencers’ mid-way through the 5minute triangulation activity, and students could observe what happens in another 5-minute stint of system
adjustment in the simulation.
Area of Study 3: Practical investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Design and undertake an
investigation related to
ecosystem monitoring and/or
change, and draw a
conclusion based on evidence
from collected data.
 How does the addition of different types of fertilisers to soil affect soil
properties, for example pH, permeability to water and capacity to withstand
water drops?
 Are photosynthetic rates and plant growth affected by exposure to different
types of light, for example natural or artificial?
 How do the decomposition rates of different types of food scraps compare?
 Do ‘organically grown’ fruits and vegetables decompose at different rates
when compared with ‘non-organically’ grown fruits and vegetables?
 How do new farming practices or urban/rural development changes affect
survival of plant and animal species?
 What factors affect erosion rates?
 Are fishing yields related to lunar cycles and tidal patterns or to seasons?
 How do fire, drought and flood affect the relative regeneration rates of
indigenous, native and introduced plant species?
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Detailed example
HOW DO FIRE, DROUGHT AND FLOOD AFFECT THE RELATIVE REGENERATION RATES OF
INDIGENOUS, NATIVE AND INTRODUCED PLANT SPECIES?
The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 1 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of
Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of
students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 What input would students have into the selection of the type of investigation undertaken (laboratory work,
fieldwork or a combination of both)?
 What input would students have into the selection of the investigation question?
 What input would students have into the design of the experiment or fieldwork exercises?
 Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
 Is class data pooling a possibility?
 Will off-school site work be involved?
 Is the investigation reliant on particular weather conditions and/or accessibility constraints?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
The template may subsequently be adapted by students as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Topic selection phase
In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following a fieldwork activity where students
had noted significant regrowth in an area that had recently been subject to controlled burning. One student
referred to indigenous land management practices including the use of fire, while another student reflected on
regrowth after bushfires and that some tree species, particularly eucalypts, appeared to flourish. This led to
discussions about indigenous, native and introduced tree species and whether other extreme climatic events
had similar effects on plant regeneration. From this discussion students generated a question for investigation:
How do fire, drought and flood affect the relative regeneration rates of indigenous, native and introduced plant
species?
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
 identifying the independent, dependent and controlled variables in various experiments
 distinguishing between continuous and discrete variables
 developing hypotheses and distinguishing between a hypothesis, prediction and conclusion.
Teachers should work with students to:
 identify and negotiate undertaking of various experiments by different students or student groups within the
parameters of the question
 safely simulate conditions of ‘fire’.
Investigation phase
Student-designed methodologies must be approved by the teacher prior to students undertaking practical
investigations. A possible general management plan for the investigation follows:
 determine set of experiments and set up class recording grid, for example:
Seed
treatment
Time since planting
(weeks)
(N=20)
Untreated
Number of germinated seeds
Indigenous plant
seeds
Native tree seeds
Introduced plant
seeds
1
2
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3
Fire-charred
1
2
3
Sun-dried
1
2
3
Watersoaked
1
2
3
 treat seeds (burning to simulate fire, drying to simulate drought and soaking in water to simulate drought)
and set up growing conditions
 monitor weekly and record seed germination rates; monitoring times may need to be extended, dependent
on when germination begins.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to
explain and answer the investigation question. Differences in germination rates should be related to the type of
seed being tested and the conditions to which the seeds were subjected.
Further avenues for investigation include:
 determining the effects on seed germination rates from other environmental events and conditions (for
example, high humidity, acid rain)
 determining the effects of changed germination rates of seeds on the types of birds and insects attracted to
a particular area.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.
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Unit 2: How can pollution be managed?
Learning activities should help consolidate conceptual understanding and build science
inquiry skills.
The sequencing of learning activities and undertaking of fieldwork may be influenced by the
availability of resources, physical conditions of local ecosystems and weather conditions.
Area of Study 1: When does pollution become a hazard?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Compare a selected pollutant
that results in bioaccumulation
with an air- or water-borne
pollutant, with reference to
their sources, characteristics
and dispersal, explain how
they can be measured and
monitored, and describe
treatment options.
 construct a Venn diagram using three intersecting circles to compare the
definitions and features of wastes, contaminants and pollution
 debate the question, ‘Is pollution inevitable?’
 define a ‘green’ detergent, compare ingredients lists for ‘green’ and
conventional detergents, and design an experiment to test whether ‘green’
detergents are less toxic than conventional detergents
 design and perform an experiment to test the effectiveness of different
methods for cleaning up oil spills or the effects of oil spills, for example
responding to questions such as ‘How can oil be removed most effectively
from bird feathers?’ or ‘Can oil floating on a pond or dam be removed in the
same way as oil spilled at sea?’ or ‘Does the salt in sea water affect how
well an oil spill can be removed?’ or ‘Is oil spilled on water easier to remove
than oil seeping into soils?’ or ‘Do different soils and rocks absorb oil to
different degrees, and do they require different removal techniques?’
 investigate how DDT accumulates within organisms and magnifies up a
food chain using a virtual Environmental Science simulation; see
 http://virtualEnvironmental Sciencelab.org/Biomagnification.htm
 create a possible food chain of organisms within an ecosystem relevant to a
bioaccumulating pollutant; use concentration data (i.e. species with lowest
concentration of pollutant likely at bottom of the food chain and species with
highest concentration likely at top of food chain)
 annotate a map (for example, Google Earth; Google Maps) to indicate the
geographic distribution of a pollutant from its source/s to its sink/s and
identify the relevant transport mechanisms
 collect field data for three environmental indicators within a local ecosystem;
compare data collected with geographically comparable water quality data
collected (for example, by Melbourne Water at
http://melbournewater.com.au/waterdata/riverhealthdata/Documents/Summ
ary_Waterway_water_quality_data_2013.pdf); account for differences in
data collected; identify possible limitations of data collection methodology;
and suggest realistic improvements
 comment on Ha-Joon Chang’s quote from 23 Things They Don’t Tell You
About Capitalism (2010): ‘People ‘over-produce’ pollution because they are
not paying for the costs of dealing with it’
 complete an introductory risk assessment (using a template) for a
hazardous activity/scenario relevant to schools (for example; riding a bike to
school; using a school laboratory for practical work; playing a sport) and
follow up with a case study related to a pollutant, using information provided
to complete a further risk assessment
 role play being a toxicologist and design and conduct an experiment to
investigate the effect different doses of chemicals have on the germination
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capacity of radish (or other fast-germinating) seeds, and present results as
a dose-response curve; chemicals could include plant food; sucrose;
artificial sweetener; liquid laundry detergent; shampoo; carbonated water;
household all-purpose cleaner; disinfectant; salt
 conduct an experiment to investigate the relationship between availability of
oxygen and rate of decay/removal of an active pollutant (for example,
nutrient pollution; decomposition of organic biodegradable materials such as
fruit peel); the experiment may be a simulation/modelling exercise rather
than using an actual pollutant
 debate the idea that: ‘spraying an apple with pesticides defeats the purpose
of eating the apple’
 create an infographic to visually summarise a new technology that reduces
pollution, including statistics/data from a reliable source presented in two or
more different formats (for example, pie chart; map; frequency histogram;
table); a labelled diagram of the technology; clear and obvious ‘take home’
messages; and citations for all sources of information; new technologies
could include plug-in hybrid cars; gasification; fuel cells; biofuels; carbon
sequestration
Detailed example
HOW DOES THE DOSAGE OF A POLLUTANT AFFECT GERMINATION OF RADISH SEEDS?
Aim
To investigate the effect of changing dosages of a non-bioaccumulating water-borne chemical pollutant on the
germination capacity of radish seeds.
Introduction
Students imagine that they are toxicologists and conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of varying the
dosage of a non-bioaccumulating water-borne chemical pollutant added to radish seeds (or other fast
germinating seeds such as mung beans, cress, white mustard).
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Prior learning
Students should be familiar with the following concepts and skills prior to undertaking the activity:
 defining the term ‘water-borne pollutant’ and listing some examples
 examining chemical components / structure / characteristics of the selected chemical for the investigation
 mapping the geographic location/s of sources, dispersal, sinks of the selected chemical
 hypothesising under which conditions the selected chemical could be classed as a pollutant
 identifying potential sources of the selected chemical (for example, industrial waste, sewage and waste
water, mining activities, burning of fossil fuels, agricultural waste including fertilisers and animal waste, urban
development including landfill)
 completing / reviewing a safety data sheet (SDS) for using the selected chemical in a school laboratory
 sourcing acceptable limits of chemicals based on toxicological studies, including expressing these limits as a
dosage
 researching how toxicity tests enable toxicologists to learn about responses of living organisms to doses of
chemicals (dose-response relationships).
Preparation:
 Technical support prepares relatively concentrated stock solutions of selected chemical ‘pollutant’ (e.g. solid
chemicals could be dissolved to approximately 50% w/v in water).
 Safe, easily available chemicals to select from could include: ethanoic acid, acetone, methanol, ethanol,
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laundry detergent, disinfectant / household all-purpose cleaner, shampoo, plant food, salt, window cleaner.
 2.5 mL volumes of various concentrations of the chemical are supplied for the class (e.g. 0%, 5%, 10%,
15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%). Each group of students selects any five variations in concentration for their
experiment; ideally one of these should be a zero concentration of the chemical to act as a control sample.
 Depending on the class size, replicates of each sample could be set up; students could average the data
obtained as part of their analysis.
 In addition, each student group also requires seeds soaked overnight in water in the dark, paper towels/
cotton wool pads to provide a germination surface within the Petri dishes, 5 small Petri dishes with lids, a
spoon, deionized water in spray bottles, indoor access to sunlight, magnifying glasses / digital camera with
zoom.
Health, safety and ethical notes:
 The chemicals selected are common household products. Standard laboratory safety measures should be
followed.
 There are no ethical issues.
Procedure:
 Collect materials for their group including 5 different concentrations of the selected chemical ‘pollutant’.
 Spray the bottom of the Petri dishes with a little water to help the cotton wool pads to stick.
 Place a cotton wool pad into the base of each Petri dish.
 Administer the different dosages of the selected chemical by pouring the 2.5 mL volumes of chosen
concentrations onto the pads.
 Using the spoon, carefully distribute about 20 pre-soaked seeds onto the pad.
 Cover the Petri dishes with their lids and place in a warm, well-lit location.
 Construct a table that best represents the results you will collect in your logbooks.
 Lightly spray the seeds with water during the experiment as needed. The cotton wool pad should be just
damp and not soaking.
Students could collect qualitative and quantitative data over multiple days, which may include: time
measurements, measurements of root / shoot / root hair growth, % germination, photographs/time-lapse
images, sketches.
If replicate samples are set up then students could average the data collected.
Students could analyse the data by constructing a dose-response curve. If the experiment is continued until all
the germinated seedlings die, then it may be possible to deduce an LD50 from interpolating the curve.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
A series of four to six graded questions should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:
1. State: What are the dependent, independent and controlled variables in your investigation?
2. Classify: Is your selected chemical ‘pollutant’ coming from a point source or diffuse source? Define these
terms as part of your response.
3. Analyse: At what dosage does your selected chemical become toxic to the seeds? Define this term as part
of your answer.
4. Evaluate: What are some limitations to the experimental method that prevented you from collecting more
accurate and reliable data?
5. Propose: What are some improvements you could make to the experimental method that addresses the
limitation you have identified?
Teaching notes
Radish seeds will require about 3–4 days to germinate. The experiment could be set up on a Monday and then
monitored mid-week and end of week for percentage germination. Students may opt to monitor their seeds
daily. Seeds can be considered ungerminated after 8 days of no growth. If students are collecting data about
growth rates then sufficient data can be obtained over about a 7-day period following germination.
The following learning activities could be used as a follow-up to the investigation:
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 justifying whether environmental sources of pollutants are point or non-point sources
 describing the method/s of dispersal of air- or water-borne pollutants in general and therefore qualitatively
estimating the risk/likelihood of pollutants coming in contact with plants in particular environments
 describing how plants take in and use water/dissolved minerals as seeds and comparing with seedlings and
established plants
 describing treatment options including options for managing incidents that contribute to significant discharge
of the selected chemical, minimising future/ongoing exposure of plants to the selected chemical
 classifying treatment options as to whether they control/manage the chemical at the point or non-point
source level.
Extension of detailed example
Another useful analytical tool for monitoring water toxicity is to measure the survival rate of water fleas (Daphnia
magna) as the test organism. These invertebrates are highly sensitive to toxic substances, have short
generation times, multiply very rapidly, easily acclimatise in laboratory condition, can be grown in a small space
and can be measured easily and in a relatively short period using a compound light microscope.
Specific considerations
A note of caution that this experiment uses live invertebrates – some students may be sensitive about this.
Acute toxicity is determined by death or immobility of the Daphnia within 48 hours of exposure to the ‘pollutant’.
About 40 Daphnia will be required for each class group in order to set up 5 concentrations of the selected
chemical ‘pollutant’ – prepared as per instructions in the detailed example above. The Daphnia cost about $20
per 40 and can be sourced easily from:
http://www.southernbiological.com/specimens/living-specimens-and-supplies/protozoa-other-invertebrates/l3-60Daphnia-live/
Procedure:
 Add 2.5 mL of different concentrations of the selected chemical 500 mL glass beakers – all glassware must
be previously scrubbed with a non-phosphate detergent. Label the beakers appropriately.
 Add 500 mL tap water to each beaker and swirl gently to mix.
 By viewing freshly obtained Daphnia under a stereomicroscope, a large plastic pipette is used to transfer 8
Daphnia into each glass beaker containing different concentrations of chemical.
 Maintain all Daphnia cultures at 8oC (± 2oC) with 16 hours per day of daylight for about 24 hours.
 Construct a table that best represents the results collected in logbooks.
 By viewing Daphnia under a stereomicroscope, all 8 Daphnia from one of the test beakers should be
captured using a large plastic pipette and place it into a small petri dish containing 10 mL of the beaker
solution.
 Count the number of Daphnia that are: alive, dead and immobilised.
 Return all 8 of the Daphnia to their original beaker.
 Culture the Daphnia for a further approximately 24 hours and then repeat the counting procedure.
 To view one of the live Daphnia using a compound light microscope use a large plastic pipette to transfer
one Daphnia along with a small drop of beaker solution onto a clean microscope slide. A cover slip is not
needed and only a small amount of water is needed on the slide or it will easily swim out of your field of view.
Examine at x4 and x10 magnification. The Daphnia are nearly transparent so the diaphragm (iris) may need
to be adjusted to obtain a clear view. Return the Daphnia to its original beaker.
Specific Daphnia care procedures can be found at:
http://file.southernbiological.com/Assets/Products/Specimens/Living_Specimens_and_Supplies/Protozoa_&_Ot
her_Invertebrates/L3_60-Daphnia/L3_60_Daphnia_CareInstructions.pdf
US EPA protocols for bioassays using Daphnia can be found at
http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF/2000AY11.PDF
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Area of Study 2: What makes pollution management so complex?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Compare the sources, nature,
transport mechanism, effects
and treatment of three
selected pollutants, with
reference to their actions in
the atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.
 work in groups using a ‘jigsaw’ approach to research a question related to
air, water or soil pollution, and present findings to a selected audience
 convert the following research questions into hypotheses, and outline a
methodology for their testing:
 Does road construction contribute to increase erosion and/or soil
degradation?
 Do pesticides also kill plants?
 Does litter degrade faster in salt water than fresh water?
 Does salination lead to desertification?
 suggest research plans to enable justified responses to be made to the
following questions:
 Is infrasound pollution?
 Why do chlorofluorocarbons present an environmental risk, and how are
alternatives developed?
 To what extent is coral bleaching an issue in the Great Barrier Reef?
 Should dioxins be banned?
 use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate a question
related to air, water or soil pollution
 select a ‘theme’ or ‘issue’ that can be investigated across the categories of
air, water and soil pollution and present an integrated response to the
theme or issue; for example, a theme related to the use of cars as transport
may involve investigating the overarching question ‘Should car-free days
become compulsory?’ by considering a question related to air pollution such
as ‘How clean is bioethanol?’, a question related to water pollution such as
‘What dangers do underground oil tank leakages pose?’ and a question
related to soil pollution such as ‘Why does lead-acid battery recycling pose
an environmental threat?’; results from the air, water and soil pollution
investigations can be used to construct and communicate a response to the
overarching question
Detailed example
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING TO ADDRESS AN ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTION
Aim
To use a Project Based Learning (PBL) approach to investigate environmental questions relating to air, water
and soil pollution.
Introduction
Students work in small groups to undertake an in-depth inquiry into one question relating to air, water and soil
pollution (refer to examples of questions on pp. 19–21 of the Study Design) and create, compose or produce a
product for an authentic audience.
Teaching notes
This detailed example draws on the principles of PBL developed by the Buck Institute for Education
(http://bie.org/about).
A PBL approach begins with a fairly open-ended question, which is ideally provocative and engaging so that it
grabs students’ interest. Students investigate this question and brainstorm possible solutions, learning relevant
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content during the process. They then apply their learning in creative ways to produce, demonstrate or perform
a proposal, advocate for a policy or solution, or teach something to others, practising their communication skills
in the process.
Each student-centred project is broken down into three main stages, which can overlap within the time frame:
 inquire/discover/research
 create/compose/produce
 present/share/promote
Overall three questions relating to air, water and soil pollution are required for investigation. A manageable way
to tackle this is for:
 three questions to be investigated as a class
 student groups to share their groups’ learning with their class peers
 students to complete a ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the three selected pollutants that addresses some
or all of the following categories: sources; chemical and physical properties; movement through the
atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere; measurement and monitoring; effects on living things
and the environment, including toxicity; treatment and management options related to effects, including new
technologies; social, economic, legal and ethical implications relevant to pollution management options.
The contribution of each student within any group can be accounted for by using self- and peer- assessment
questionnaires and a compare and contrast matrix in the assessment.
Approximate time frames are proposed for each stage.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation:
 Students may need assistance in deconstructing the investigation question.
 Teachers could also discuss the necessary skills required to work well in a group, including perseverance
and a positive attitude.
Health and safety notes
There are no specific health and safety concerns associated with this activity.
Procedure
Stage 1: inquire/discover/research
Lesson 1 plus some out-of-class time. Students:
 Choose an investigation question (IQ) that interests them personally – ideally make their personal interest in
it explicit by recording initial ideas in their logbook.
 Form teams of three to four people all with some interest in the same IQ. The teacher may facilitate this.
 As a team, brainstorm what each student knows and doesn’t know about the problem/investigation question.
What specific questions do they need to investigate further? Each student should keep evidence of the
process in their logbooks.
 Consider how the IQ impacts on people and places; research, identify and describe relevant national or
global geographic location/s and specific community groups. What specific questions do they need to
investigate further? Students need to keep evidence of the process in their logbooks and remember to keep
a record of where they sourced the information in case they need to return to it later.
Lesson 2 plus some out-of-class time. Students:
 Review the selected IQ and reframe/rewrite it if necessary to include specific parameters (such as particular
pollutant, place, stakeholders, time frame, season etc.).
 Nominate valid sources, such as agencies, organisations or professionals in the field, who might be able to
supply information to help answer the specific questions identified that require further investigation.
 Collect as much information as possible on the IQ by dividing up these tasks to individuals within the group.
Don’t forget to agree on a timeline for completion. This might include using methods such as: online/library
research; surveys; interviews; photo and video documentation; experimental data; and meeting with a variety
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of experts with different viewpoints. As students research, it is critical they collect sufficient information that
allows them to explain arguments for and against different stakeholders’ points of view. Each student should
keep and share a careful log of their research – dates, times, sources, observations, summaries etc.
Lesson 3. Students:
 As a group analyse the evidence collated during the field studies and create charts, graphs and other visual
representations to understand the findings.
Stage 2: create/compose/produce
Lesson 4 plus some out-of-class time: Students:
 Decide, based on the research, what specific product/solution the group would like to create that addresses
the IQ? The task is to make public a strong, convincing argument to a real/authentic audience. Does the
group want to build a model, design a website, plan a community event, improve an existing
project/program, initiate an action-oriented campaign, make a persuasive presentation to relevant
stakeholders? Or something else?
 Identify all the steps required to make this stage happen.
 Make contact with the real/authentic audience and present them with a very brief description of the intended
product/solution and the rationale/s for the inquiry into the IQ. Keep evidence of contact in the logbooks.
Lesson 5 plus some out of class time. Students:
 Create the product/solution and collect evidence of the process.
Stage 3: present/share/promote
Lesson 6 plus some out of class time. Students:
 Present the product/solution to class peers for initial review. The teacher and randomly selected class peers
will complete an assessment questionnaire (based on provided criteria in an assessment rubric). Complete
self- and team peer-assessment questionnaires.
 Deliver the product/solution to the real/authentic audience. Collect evidence of the process. Randomly
selected audience members complete assessment questionnaires.
Lesson 7:
Each student completes a written ‘compare and contrast matrix’ for the three selected pollutants that addresses
some or all of the following categories: sources; chemical and physical properties; movement through the
atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere; measurement and monitoring; effects on living things and
the environment, including toxicity; treatment and management options related to effects, including new
technologies; social, economic, legal and ethical implications relevant to pollution management options.
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Area of Study 3: Case study
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and communicate
a substantiated response to
an issue involving the
management of a selected
pollutant of local interest.
 in groups investigate a selected case study; each member of the group
contributes a nominated newspaper item related to the case study in a class
enviro e-newspaper (for example, letter to the editor, a report of pollution
solutions in the case study, survey results from a public opinion poll related
to an aspect of the case study, environmental cartoon, interviews with
stakeholders)
 the class explores a single, local case study through a Question and
Answer panel role-play; nominate stakeholders who then communicate
responses orally and then nominate different stakeholders who respond in
written form
Detailed example
HOW SHOULD A POLLUTANT BE MANAGED?
The communication of the findings of an investigation of a case study involving the management of a selected
pollutant of local interest builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of
Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected case study. Teachers
must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, whether a
local or broader issue will be investigated, student interest in particular case studies, whether all students will
investigate the same issue and the format for the response. The following questions require consideration:
 How will the case study for investigation be selected?
 To whom will students be expected to communicate?
 What form will the communication take?
 To what extent will students work on their case study inside and outside the class, and how can work
completed outside the class be authenticated?
 To what extent will students work independently? Collaboratively?
Aim
To communicate a justified response to an issue involving the management of a selected pollutant of local
interest.
Introduction
Students role-play a Q&A panel type discussion to examine the possible implications (benefits and limitations)
for stakeholders affected by management options of a selected pollutant of local interest. Initially each student
will assume the role of one stakeholder in one case study and become part of the panel type discussion. This is
followed by each student selecting a different stakeholder and writing a media communication (approximately
500 words, 2 sides of A4) from their perspective, for example newspaper article; TV ad script; blog entries over
period of time.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation:
 Students should have discussed examples of ‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’ oral and written communication
techniques and practices.
 Case studies should be pre-selected by the teacher that relate to a specific pollutant occurring in a particular
location.
 Depending on the class size, two case studies (and therefore two panels) will be required per class.
 Information in a case study could be presented to students as a series of ‘fact sheets’, in addition to details
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about the sources of information, to allow students to conduct further research as required.
 Students become panel members that represent stakeholder interests (students select the names of
stakeholders at random ‘from a hat’), for example local resident with young family; local government
representative; lawyer; environmental scientist; site worker from company contracted to carry out treatment
of pollution; medical professional; environmental activist; philanthropist.
Health, safety and ethical notes:
 Students should be respectful of others and their opinions at all times.
 Students should be reminded that this activity is simply a role-play and the comments made do not
necessary reflect the attitudes of the individual speakers.
Procedure
Lesson 1: In this lesson students will: consider general information about the pollution management case study;
put themselves in the role of one stakeholder and present their position; construct a question they would like
addressed by a discussion panel; prepare possible responses to these questions from their perspective as one
stakeholder. Students:
 Read through the ‘fact sheets’ relating to the pollution management case studies.
 In the logbook, jot down any initial questions about the case study
 Select at random the name of a stakeholder relevant to the case study.
 Spend 10 minutes brainstorming the likely perspective of the stakeholder towards the issue of management
of pollution in the selected area. Students may discuss their ideas with peers and the teacher. Students need
to consider the biases (feelings, opinions, prejudices) that their stakeholder may have for this issue and write
these into the logbook.
 Present a 20-second oral summary of the stakeholder to the class, for example: “My name is X and I am a
farmer in the local area. The pollutant affects my crops and causes lower growth rates. This means that I am
unable to sell as much of my product and so I earn less money for my family.”
 On a slip of paper, construct one question that they would like addressed by someone relating to this case
study. Students may suggest which stakeholder they would like to primarily respond to their question. The
question should be well thought out so as to give as much insight into the management of this pollutant at
this location. Students may use the following list of question terms to assist them –
List 1: Who/What/Where/When/Why/How…?
List 2: …would/could/should/is/are/might/will/was/were…?
Submit the question to the teacher, who will collate these (perhaps by photocopying all slips onto a single
sheet of paper) and distribute them to the relevant discussion panel.
 Now working with the other members of the panel, discuss the questions that have been submitted and write
notes into the logbook detailing the response to these questions from the perspective of a stakeholder.
Include as much scientific data as possible in the responses. Students may need to conduct additional
Internet research to develop responses.
Lesson 2: In this lesson students will: role-play the perspective on one stakeholder as part of a panel discussion.
They may use any notes already written in the logbook and may also make additional notes in the logbook
during the class.
Lesson 3: In this lesson students will: write a media communication in the logbook from the perspective of a
different stakeholder from that role-played in the panel discussion. They may choose to write a newspaper
article, TV ad script, blog entries over a period of time or another type of written media communication. By the
end of this lesson students will submit approximately 500 words / 2 sides of A4. They may use any notes from
the logbook.
The media communication should identify/highlight the:
 specific scientific concept/s being communicated
 likely target audience
 scientific data used to justify position of the stakeholder.
Students will be assessed with respect to:
 accuracy of scientific information
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 clarity of explanations
 appropriateness for purpose and audience.
Additional teaching notes: Sample case studies
1. Contamination of Australian Groundwater Systems with Nitrate
http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/river-landscapes/pr990211/pr990211.pdf July 1999
Case studies referenced:
Effluent disposal—Western Treatment Plant, Werribee, Victoria
Septic tank study—Nepean Peninsula, Victoria
Septic tank study—Venus Bay and Sandy Point, Victoria
Septic tank study—Benalla, Victoria
2. Air quality in Australia
http://bit.ly/17QzFvS March 2013
Case studies referenced:
Brooklyn Industrial Precinct – Western suburbs, Melbourne
www.wadenoonan.com.au/slideshow/193-clean-up-brooklyn-melbournes-dirtiest-suburb
Landfills – Clayton and Dingley, Melbourne
3. Landfill pollution in Melbourne
Case study referenced:
Brookland Greens Estate: investigation into methane gas leaks – Cranbourne, Victoria
www.parliament.vic.gov.au/papers/govpub/VPARL2006-10No237.pdf
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Appendix 1: Scientific investigation
Hypothesis formulation
Once a topic has been identified students develop a research question for investigation,
which may involve formulating a hypothesis.
Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or
hypothesis that is not testable.
Variables
The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification and control of variables. A variable
is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be
measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a
magnitude.
Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for
example, metre rulers. Shades of colour are less easily measured and are more likely to be
subjective. They might be measured by, for example, using photographic comparisons to
produce a set of graduated ‘standards’ that are nominated and named for the purposes of
the investigation.
In VCE Environmental Science, students are required to identify independent and dependent
variables. They should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous
variables including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and
the interpretation of results. Operationalisation of variables is beyond the scope of the VCE
Environmental Science Study Design.
Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Environmental Science are specified in
Appendix 3.
Developing a testable hypothesis
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or
qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying
hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.
There is no mandated VCE Environmental Science ‘style’ for writing a hypothesis.
Recognition of null and alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and
directional and non-directional hypotheses is not required.
The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a
research question using an “If-then-when” construction process:
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Step 1: Ask a research question of interest: Is there a difference in rainfall over adjacent rural and urban towns?
Step 2: Identify the independent variable (IV): type of land mass (rural or urban)
Step 3: Identify the dependent variable (DV): rainfall
Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below):
a
b
c
…then…
d
trend indicator
e
…when…
f
If…
relationship phrase
(the
DV)…
(to the IV)
(effect on the DV)
(action by the IV).
…depends on…
...show an increase/
decrease ...
…increased/ decreased…
…results from…
…is affected by…
…is directly related to…
trend indicator
…greater/ less…
…be greater than/less
than…
…large/small…
…be larger /smaller…
Hypothesis: If the rainfall over a land mass is directly related to the degree of urbanisation, then the rainfall will be greater in
urban towns when compared with rural towns.
Notes:
 Different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid
 Some hypotheses include reasons for the inherent prediction, for example the above hypothesis may be extended as: ‘If
the rainfall over a land mass is directly related to the degree of urbanisation, since urban areas heat up more than rural
areas because of the heating differences of two surface types, then the rainfall will be greater in urban towns when
compared with rural towns.’
Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Accuracy
Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the
accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is
the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an
experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g,
but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not
close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is
known as the ‘measurement error’.
While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in
some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true
value for a particular quantity may be unknown. Often, measurement accuracy is evaluated
by making comparisons with accepted values for a physical quantity.
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Precision
Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other.
Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise
measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given
substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the
experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true
mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be
accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to
determine the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were
obtained, then if the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since
the measurements for the given substance are close to the true value, but the
measurements are spread over a range.
The reproducibility of an experimental method is dependent on its level of experimental
precision. A measurement that is highly reproducible tends to give values that are very close
to each other.
Experimental precision can be improved by:
 repeating the experiment multiple times
 collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples
 practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved.
Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the
magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there
is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values, for
example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g.
Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility
Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable
and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the
closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on
identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same
laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of
agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test
material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different
laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of
the reliability of an experiment.
Reliability
Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly
the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a
very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always
produce reliable results.
Validity
Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements
of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s.
Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results:
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 internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of
the steps of the scientific research method
 external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are
any other possible causal relationships.
Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single
independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control
variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.
Experimental uncertainties and errors
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being
measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement
result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’.
Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be
eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are
two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors.
Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors.
Human errors
Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the
depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring
the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter
by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r 2. Human errors can be
eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part
of error analysis.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors
cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted
value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by
repeating those measurements.
Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax
error’).
Random errors
Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always
present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of
uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread
of readings.
Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between
the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument
because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a
transient event.
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The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and
calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.
Outliers
Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers must be further
analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Repeating readings
may be useful in further examining an outlier.
Presenting and analysing data
To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment,
data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident.
Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to
show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more
clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical
representation used by students will depend upon the type of variables investigated:
 pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is
categorical
 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent
variables are continuous
 lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables
 scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables
 sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not
necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between
two variables.
When drawing graphs, students should note that:
 the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable is represented on the vertical axis
 the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal
relationship between two variables
 not all experiments will show a correlation between variables
 common types of relationships in Environmental Science include linear, exponential and
cyclic.
Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing
conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with
the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not
go beyond, the data available.
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Appendix 2: Defining variables
The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Environmental Science.
Type of variable
Definitions
Categorical
Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or
characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are
generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as
ordinal or nominal.
 Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or
ranked, for example, liveability of a city (1st, 2nd 3rd), population size
(small, medium, large) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
 Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical
sequence, for example, gender, fur colour and type of leaf
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
Numerical
Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable
quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They
are further classified as continuous or discrete.
 Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers, for example, length (7.85 metres), age (12.5 million years) or
production (canola crop yield of 2.6 tonnes per hectare)
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of
distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one
value and the next closest value, for example, number of kangaroos in a
paddock
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
Independent
An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated
(selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct
effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the
horizontal axis of graphs.
Dependent
A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after
selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent
variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Extraneous
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an
extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least
monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of
experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.
Confounding
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either
directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and
can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative
explanations for experimental results.
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Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based
learning approaches
A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to
examining science-based issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from local issues,
fictional case studies or case studies reported in scientific journals, as illustrated in the
following example.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Case study: A small town was renowned for its rock concerts. The rock concerts had been organised on a
weekly basis scheduled every weekend for the last five years. Population surveys revealed that the town
population doubled during weekends and local businesses reported significantly increased trade. The local
bird watching club, however, published a report that summarised observational findings over a ten-year period
that indicated that populations of an indigenous bird species had declined to almost endangered levels.
Members of the club noted that bird calls could not be heard during rock concert performances and suggested
that bird mating rituals were disrupted by the concert noise. In its annual report the local council reported
significant littering issues both at the concert venues and in a stream that ran adjacent to the concert venue.
The local doctor wrote an article in the town’s newspaper reporting that cases of deafness in patients had
increased significantly since the rock concerts began.
Task: Propose credible resolutions for the issues identified in this case.
Step 2: Refine the question/
explore possible options
(class brainstorming)
Step 3: Plan the actual
investigation/ narrow your
choices
(class consensus)
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further
information
(group and/or individual)
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including specific scientific
terminology.
Notes:
 problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution
A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The
skills should link to relevant study content. The following example focuses on the skill of
hypothesis formulation.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Student question: Do fertilisers improve soil?
Task: The research question is too broad. The word ‘improve’ needs clarification. Which particular properties of a
soil would be investigated? Would the ability of a soil to absorb water or nutrients relate to improvement, or does
the improvement relate to increased crop growth? Once this is clarified, a testable hypothesis can be developed.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Possible responses:
Controlling variables:
 Does it matter which type of
fertiliser is used?
 Does it matter which type of soil is
used?
©VCAA 2015
Step 3 Plan the actual investigation/
narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Possible responses:
Need to identify dependent and
independent variables and control
other variables.
Independent variable (being
controlled) relates to the nature of the
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Possible responses:
 Hypothesis example: ‘If a
soil’s water permeability is
directly related to the
amount of garden compost it
contains, then soils treated
with higher amounts of
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
 What other conditions need to be
controlled?
Question is too broad in terms of
‘improve’. How will the term ‘improve’
be understood in this investigation?
What would be the effects of an
‘improved’ soil?
An ‘improved’ soil could result in:
 improved growth of plants
 presence of more earthworms
 increased soil moisture so that
plants can access water
 more granulated soil texture/
increased water permeability rates
to allow nutrients and water to
move into plants more easily
 particular pH for growing different
types of plants
 increased percentage of organic
matter
 increased nutrient content.
Other issues:
 Will ‘improve’ relate to all types of
plants?
 Will ‘improve’ relate to all types of
soils?
fertiliser and how the soil is treated:
 a particular type of soil may be
tested, or multiple experiments
could be set up to test different
types of soils
 type of fertiliser could be specified
(for example, garden manure,
commercial fertilisers) or multiple
experiments could be set up to
test different types of fertilisers.
Dependent variable relates to the
characteristics of the soil
improvement that can be measured
and could be:
 number of earthworms
 amount of organic matter
 soil porosity
 water permeability.
Control of other variables is
dependent on selected independent
and dependent variables.
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
garden compost will have
higher water permeability
rates than soils treated with
lower amounts of garden
compost’. (A further
question associated with
this hypothesis is whether
increased permeability
results in better plant
growth.)
Not all hypotheses are testable
and not all variables can be
controlled for some
experiments.
For this problem, students
generate possible hypotheses;
provide feedback on each
other’s hypotheses; modify own
hypotheses.
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific
terminology, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.
Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to
investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan
Sample Course Outline – VCE Environmental Science Unit 1: How are Earth’s systems connected?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
1
2
Area
Topics
 Simulation: systems thinking ‘triangular connections’ class activity
 Investigation: aquarium analysis of open, semi-permeable and closed
systems
Overview of
 Case study: parachuting cats in Borneo
Unit 1 – Earth Systems thinking (systems thinking framework for exploring
as a dynamic relationships in environmental systems; open, semi-permeable and
 Model and fieldwork in local contexts: students select a familiar system (for
system that
closed systems; Earth as a system of four interconnected sub-systems)
example, a car, a refrigerator, a stereo system, an irrigation system, the
sustains life
human body) and draw a system diagram or concept map that shows
supra-systems and sub-systems, and the interactions between systems
including inputs, processes that act on inputs, and outputs; as a
comparison, activity extended and applied to a selected ecosystem
3
4
5
Learning activities
Earth and its major systems (evidence of age of Earth; Earth’s
structure; physical, chemical and biological processes associated with
How is Earth a the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere; concepts of
environment and ecosystems)
dynamic
system?
6
7
©VCAA 2015
 Model: create a labelled model of the structure of Earth
 Investigation in a local context: students explore how changing a biotic or
abiotic factor in one of Earth’s spheres affect the other spheres, for
example, investigation of whether increased carbon environments increase
photosynthetic rates (atmosphere); testing ‘companion planting’
effectiveness (biosphere); dumping of salt into a stream (hydrosphere); or
changing the number of earthworms or type of fertiliser used in soils
(lithosphere)
Processes for creating the essential conditions to sustain life on
 Simulation: bio-geochemical cycles
Earth (movement of energy through Earth’s systems; bio-geochemical
cycles; energy fluxes, cycles and transformations in Earth’s systems)  Experiment: investigation of the energy potential held in a potato/lemon
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ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
and identification of the different energy conversions that occur
 Experiment: comparison of inputs and outputs associated with yeast
Inputs and outputs for life (sources of essential inputs;
growth, with and without sugar or investigation of the effects of the use of
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis; aerobic and anaerobic
natural versus artificial light conditions on photosynthetic rates and plant
respiration; distinction between reusable and waste outputs including
growth
processes where wastes from one process becomes the input for
another process; environmental consequences of different methods of  Debate: sewage can be treated to be drinkable
measuring, extracting and processing resources; variability of
 Experiment: investigation of the decomposition rates of different types of
timeframes for cleaning and renewing resources; social, legal,
food scraps
environmental and ethical factors associated with waste production and
 Field trip of local interest: recycling plant (for example, sewage, polymers,
treatment)
metal, household refuse)
8
9
10
11
12
13
How is life
sustained on
Earth?
Environmental factors that affect Earth over time (techniques for
measuring and monitoring changes in the environment; short term,
medium term and long term effects of environmental changes on
Earth’s systems; effects of unpredictable and/or abrupt environmental
changes resulting in localised extinction and speciation)
Practical
investigation
Negotiation with students/class to define research question – laboratory investigation and/or fieldwork in a local context (hypothesis
formulation; determination of aims, questions and predictions; identification of independent, dependent and controlled variables; methodology and
equipment list; fieldwork techniques; risk assessment; undertaking of experiment and/or fieldwork; analysis and evaluation of data, methods and
models; limitations of conclusions; possible further investigations; poster presentation)
14
15
16
 Fieldwork in a local context: students investigate a selected local area and
use transects and quadrats to collect qualitative and quantitative data
related to different factors at a field site (for example, light intensity,
proportion of tree/shade cover and soil moisture); with prior permission,
samples collected for further laboratory investigation; students collate and
compare data; students undertake research and conduct interviews to
consider how the field site has changed over time; students explore the
value of qualitative versus quantitative data in relation to the quality of
evidence
 Simulation: use an interactive applet to visualise day/night, seasons and
the effects of the different parts of the Milankovitch cycle
17
18
19
©VCAA 2015
Unit revision
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Sample Course Outline – VCE Environmental Science Unit 2: How can pollution be managed?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
2
3
5
When does
pollution
become a
hazard?
7
9
10
 Fieldwork in a local context: collection of field data for three
environmental indicators for streams (pH, biological oxygen demand,
Measurement and monitoring of pollutants (physical, chemical and
turbidity) or soils (pH, salinity, number of earthworms)
biological indicators for monitoring ecosystems or environmental
issues; salinity levels; pollution intolerant species; introduced species;  Experiment: effects of different pollutant dosages on the germination of
safety standards related to hazardous concentrations of chemicals;
radish seeds or survival of water fleas
risk assessment tools, monitoring technologies and remediation
 Risk assessment: complete a risk assessment using a provided template
techniques; evaluation strategies for measuring pollution impacts)
for a familiar activity (for example, riding a bike or playing a sport) and
follow up with a case study related to a pollutant
 Student design, building, testing and evaluation of a water purification
Treatment and management of pollutants (bio-physical and/or
system
chemical inactivation, substitution or elimination of pollutants; pollution
sinks; factors affecting rate of removal or decay of pollutants; new
 Creation of an infographic that visually summarises a new technology
technologies that reduce pollution
(students register different technologies)
6
8
Learning activities
Characteristics, sources and transport mechanisms of pollutants  Experiment: design and perform experiments related to effectiveness of
different methods for cleaning up oil spills or the effects of oil spills
(difference between wastes, contaminants pollution; physical and
chemical characteristics of common pollutants; persistence, mobility,  Case study: mercury pollution – case of Minamata
toxicity, bioaccumulation; pollutant resulting in bioaccumulation; air- or  Simulation: accumulation of DDT within organisms and it magnification
water-borne pollutant)
up a food chain
1
4
Topics
For this area of study, students will investigate a question related to
What makes each of air, water and soil pollution. For each student, one question will
pollution
be investigated as a class, a second question will be investigated in a
management group and a third question will be investigated individually so that
so complex? students are supported to work with increasing independence.
 Class activity: Class agrees on a question for investigation related
©VCAA 2015
Class activity: Using a ‘flipped classroom’ approach, students undertake
background research out-of-class and summarise findings in a ‘What I
know/don’t know/would like to know’ chart. Work in class to identify and
evaluate the sources, nature, transport mechanism, effects and treatment of
the pollutant being investigated.
Group activity: Students work in small groups to investigate questions of
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
to one of air, water or soil pollution.
 Group activity: Teacher facilitates brainstorming activity to
generate questions of interest from the two categories of air
pollution that were not investigated in the class activity.
 Individual student activity: Students investigate a question of
interest that relates to the pollution category that they did not
explore in the class or group activity.
Role of the teacher: Teachers must ensure that student questions of
interest can be investigated within allocated timeframes and using
available resources. As the degree of student independence
increases, the role of the teacher becomes more facilitatory so that
students are mentored through the investigation and reporting process.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Case study
18
19
©VCAA 2015
interest using a ‘jigsaw’ approach to explore different aspects of the
questions, for example, background information about the pollution issues
associated with the question being investigated; significance of the issue;
nature of the pollutants; and interviews with stakeholders involved with, or
who may be affected by, the issue. Students work together to explore and
evaluate different management options. Response to the question is
presented to the rest of the class.
Individual student activity: Students register an investigable question of
interest with the teacher. Response is presented in a format that is
appropriate for a specified audience.
Case study of local interest (selection of a local case study involving management of a pollutant of local interest; clarification of purpose for
investigating selected case study and identification of target audience and purpose of communication; characteristics of effective science
communication; primary and/or secondary sources of information including surveys, interviews; generation and evaluation of possible solutions to
issues related to management of pollution; development of effective communication; evaluation of communication to target audience)
Unit revision
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 5: Employability skills
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Annotations of a practical work folio
of activities or investigations
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Comparative analysis
Communication (sharing information; persuading effectively; writing to
the needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Data analysis
Communication (using numeracy; persuading effectively; writing to the
needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving;
using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the
context of data and circumstances into account)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Evaluation of a case study
Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the
audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (generating a range of options; identifying
options not obvious to others; initiating innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; using mathematics to solve problems; testing
assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Fieldwork report
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; sharing
information; using numeracy)
Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence
and initiative in identifying problems and solving them; using mathematics
to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; having the Occupational Health
and Safety knowledge to apply technology)
Logbook of practical activities
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance;
articulating own ideas and visions)
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Media response
Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently;
writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; testing assumptions taking the context of data
and circumstances into account)
Problem solving involving
environmental science concepts,
skills and/or issues
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem
solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking
the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Report
(oral/written/visual/multimodal)
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly;
writing to the needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Response to structured questions
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly;
writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Scientific modelling
Communication (persuading effectively; sharing information)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; applying a range of strategies to problem solving)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management)
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VCE Environmental Science Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Scientific poster
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading
effectively; sharing information; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing
assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing
to learn new information technology skills)
Student-designed investigation
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting
timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of
resources including time management; collecting, analysing and
organising information))
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence
and initiative in identifying problems and solving them)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking
responsibility)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team;
knowing how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information)
Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to
apply technology; using information technology to organise data)
Test
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to solve problems; using
mathematics to solve problems)
The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002),
developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published
by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.
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