INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

LINGUISTICS – scientific study of language
The field of linguistics can be divided in terms of three dichotomies: SYNCHRONIC versus DIACHRONIC
SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS – the language as it is at a given time
DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS – the development of the language
THEORETICAL versus APPLIED,
THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS – the description of languages
APPLIED LINGUISTICS – we apply what we have learnt about languages to practical tasks (for example, we want to
improve methods of language teaching)
and MICROLINGUISTICS versus MACROLINGUISTICS
MICROLINGUISTICS – Languages should be analysed for their own sake and without reference to their social function,
to the manner in which they are acquired by children, to the psychological mechanisms that underlie the production
and reception of speech, etc. MICROLINGUISTICS is a branch of linguistics that concerns itself with the study of
language systems in the abstract, without regard to the meaning or notional content of linguistic expressions. In
MICRO-LINGUISTICS, language is reduced to the abstract mental elements of syntax and phonology. It contrasts with
MACRO-LINGUISTICS, which includes meanings, and especially with sociolinguistics, which studies how language and
meaning function within human social system.
MACROLINGUISTICS – In contrast, MACROLINGUISTICS embraces all of these aspects of language (psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, dialectology, etc.).

PHONETICS and PHONOLOGY are part of what is called THEORETICAL, SYNCHRONIC MICROLINGUISTICS (referred to most often
as THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS), which is generally acknowledged as the central part of the subject.

THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS is normally divided into
o
o
o
o
o
o
PHONETICS
PHONOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY
SYNTAX
SEMANTICS
PRAGMATICS
PHONETICS

the study of speech sounds (their production, transmission, and perception)
BRANCHES OF PHONETICS
o ARTICULATORY PHONETICS – the study of the way the vocal organs are used to produce speech sounds
o ACOUSTIC PHONETICS – the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
o AUDITORY PHONETICS – the study of the way people perceive speech sounds
The main field of study is ARTICULATORY PHONETICS.
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Speech mechanism
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Things to consider when describing a sound: AIRFLOW, VOCAL CORDS, position of the SOFT PALATE, place of
articulation, manner of articulation, position of the lips
AIR FLOW

Most speech sounds are made using PULMONIC EGRESSIVE AIR (air flowing out of the lungs). We also have what is
called MOUTH AIR (VELARIC) and what is called INGRESSIVE AIR.
VOCAL CORDS

They can vibrate during sound production. A sound is labelled VOICED if the vocal cords are vibrating (z), and
UNVOICED or VOICELESS if they are not vibrating (s).
POSITION OF THE SOFT PALATE
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When the SOFT PALATE is lowered the air is allowed to pass through the nose thus producing a NASAL SOUND (n)
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When the SOFT PALATE is raised the air is allowed to pass through the mouth thus producing an ORAL SOUND (most
English consonants and all English vowels)
PLACE OF ARTICULATION
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the point at which a sound is produced
1. BILABIAL (lower lip – upper lip)
p
2. LABIO-DENTAL (lower lip – upper front teeth)
f
3. DENTAL (tip of tongue – rear of upper front teeth)
θ
4. ALVEOLAR (tip/blade of tongue – alveolar ridge)
s
5. PALATO-ALVEOLAR (blade/front of tongue – rear of alveolar ridge/front of hard palate)
t∫
6. PALATAL (front of tongue – hard palate)
j
7. VELAR (back of tongue – velum)
k
8. GLOTTAL (glottis)
h
MANNER OF ARTICULATION

determined by the way in which the speaker affects the air stream with his or her movable organs

stopping the air completely (PLOSIVE SOUNDS, for example p)
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making contact with the tongue but leaving space on either side of it (LATERAL SOUNDS, for ex. l)

leaving just enough space to allow a continuing stream of air to produce friction as it passes through
(FRICATIVE SOUNDS, for example f or s)

permitting the air stream to pass over the centre of the tongue without oral friction (VOCAL SOUNDS, for
example vowels)
POSITION OF THE LIPS

the quality of a vowel depends on whether the speaker keeps the lips rounded or unrounded and the degree to
which the lips are open or closed
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PHONOLOGY
TWO POINTS OF VIEW

Speech sounds and pronunciation can always be studied from two points of view: the PHONETIC and the
PHONOLOGICAL. By contrast with PHONETICS, which studies all possible sounds that the human vocal apparatus
can make, PHONOLOGY studies only the sounds that carry meaning (the PHONEMES).
o
[spIt] vs. [sphIt] – the meaning does not change = [ph] is not a separate PHONEME
o
[spIt] vs. [skIt] – the meaning does change = /k/ is a separate PHONEME, i.e. a sound that carries meaning
Phonemes and allophones
[phIt] vs. [spIt]

A PHONEME is a family of similar sounds which a language treats as being "the same". Members of the family are
called its ALLOPHONES.

In English, [p] and [ph] are ALLOPHONES of the /p/ PHONEME.

Switching ALLOPHONES of the same PHONEME won't change the meaning of the word: [sphIt] still means 'spit'.

Switching ALLOPHONES of different PHONEMES will change the meaning of the word or result in a nonsense word:
[skIt] and [stIt] do not mean 'spit'.
HOW DO WE ESTABLISH THE PHONEMES OF A LANGUAGE?
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by “MINIMAL PAIRS”
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A MINIMAL PAIR is a pair of words which differentiate by one sound only.

hot vs. cot
hot vs. hit
hot vs. hop
PROSODIC PHONOLOGY AND AUTOSEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY
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The analysis of speech into individual segments (vowels and consonants) is known as SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY;
another branch is SUPRASEGMENTALS. Theories within this branch focus on PROSODIC1 and PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES2
and their functions, for example STRESS, ACCENT, and INTONATION, which extend over units greater than the
segment, such as syllables and phrases.
SUMMARY
VOWELS
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tone, sound without noise component – forming a NUCLEUS of SYLLABLE

VOWELS cannot be described in the same way as consonants:

1
o
MANNER OF ARTICULATION (1st variable) – There is always considerable space between the articulators.
o
VOICING (3rd variable) – all VOWELS are voiced
What we can do, however, is to take into account two types of variables, PHYSICAL and NON-PHYSICAL
Three main and three secondary PROSODIC FEATURES – PITCH (DIFFERENCE IN TONE AND INTONATION), LENGTH, LOUDNESS; secondary
PROSODIC FEATURES: RHYTHM, TEMPO, VOICE QUALITY
2
PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES – facial expressions and gestures
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P HYSICAL

TONGUE SHAPE – according to which part of tongue is up (FRONT, BACK)

LIP SHAPE – CLOSE (high sound), OPEN (low sound)

Whether tongue/lip shape are held constant or undergo change (MONOPHTHONGS vs. DIPHTHONGS)
N ON - PHYSICAL

DURATION – SHORT vs. LONG vowels
T ONGUE SHAPE
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the most important factor
T ONGUE HEIGHT


How close is the tongue to the roof of the mouth?
o
OPEN VOWELS – tongue is lowered, oral cavity increases in size, a lower-pitched resonance is produced.
o
CLOSE VOWELS – tongue is raised, oral cavity decreases in size, a higher-pitched resonance is produced.
We also need to know which part of the tongue is highest in the vowel articulation.
o
FRONT VOWELS – the front of the tongue is highest
o
BACK VOWELS – the back of the tongue is highest
L IP SHAPE

ROUNDED / UNROUNDED
[i]: front close, unround
[u]: back close, round
[e]: front close-mid, unround
[o]: back close-mid, round
[Ɛ]: front open-mid, unround
[Ɔ]: back open-mid, round
[a] front open, unround
[α]: back open, unround
CONSONANT – with noise component, kinds of abstractions, forming parts of a syllable other than its nucleus
SYLLABLE – Facial expressions and gestures consisting of vowel either alone or accompanied by one or more less sonorous
unit
SYLLABIC CONSONANT – L,R – nasal when they acts as the centre of syllable
STRESS
In sentence - 1. We stress only words we wouldn’t leave in the SMS
2. STRESSED SYLLABLE is coming in the regular intervals
3. Any UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE at the beginning of stressed group is said very quickly – mumbled
In word – on 1st syllable – when it is a NOUN or a COMPOUND NOUN (‘present, ‘walkout, ‘pushover)
on 2nd syllable – when it is a VERB (pre’sent, walk ‘out, push ‘over)
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TONE UNIT

sentence in sound speech, marked as //
PROMINENT SYLLABLE – pronounced loudly, made notable – in sentence stress there is one or 2 in tone unit
TONIC SYLLABLE – last prominent syllable in tone unit – underlined
INTONATION
Grammatical approach to INTONATION – prominence and tone are linked to grammatical categories:
FALLING – statements, W questions, question tags when I know the answer
RISING – Yes/No questions, repeat W questions, question tags when we don’t know the answer, routine
greetings
DISCOURSE INTONATION

prominence and tone are linked to categories of meaning
In statements:
a) PROCLAIMING TONE – falling tone - introduces new information
b) REFERRING TONES – 1. Fall-rise – down and up – introduce shared information – natural
2. Raising tone – introduce shared information; showing dominance, no natural
c) LEVEL TONE – same, no rise or fall – used for hesitating
d) HIGH KEY – noticeable step up in pitch level
e) LOW KEY – noticeable step down in the high level – used in repeating
In questions:
a) FALLING TONE – used when we expect a new information
b) FALL-RISE – indicates when we are just checking, don’t expect a new information
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