This is a study guide for Chapter 1, 3, 4, and 5 (Study it for the 1st Exam)
Ch 01 - Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts
Ch 01 Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, students should:
 Understand the nature of geology and environmental geology
 Recognize that human population growth is the biggest challenge in
environmental geology
 Understand the concept of sustainability and the forces behind “the
environmental crisis”
 Understand the systems approach to science and the contrasts between open
and closed systems
 Understand the concepts of environmental unity and uniformitarianism
 Recognize the importance of natural hazards and the relationship of their
impacts to the history of population growth
 Understand the relationship between scientific knowledge and societal values
 Understand the scientific method and understand the potential of scientific
solutions to environmental problems, as well as the societal challenges in
attaining those solutions
 Recognize the importance of geologic time and uniformitarianism to
environmental geology
Chapter 01 Summary
This chapter focuses on conceptual and philosophical foundations of environmental
geology. It opens with a discussion of the nature of geology and environmental
geology. That discussion is followed by an assessment of human population growth
and its critical influence on resources and waste generation. Discussions follow on the
topics of sustainability, the nature of systems and systems science, the concept of
environmental unity, the impacts of natural hazards, the relationship between
scientific knowledge and societal values, and the process of science and the potential
that scientific solutions hold for the environmental crisis.
Chapter 01 Outline
I. Introduction to environmental geology
A. Geology
1. Definition
a. the study of processes related to the composition, structure, and history of Earth and
its life
2. Geology is interdisciplinary in nature
a. relies on chemistry, physics, and biology
B. Environmental Geology
1. Definition
a. applied geology
b. use of geologic information to help solve conflicts in land use, to minimize
environmental degradation, and to maximize beneficial uses of resources
2. Applications
a. earth materials
b. natural hazards
c. land resources
d. hydrologic processes
e. geologic processes
3. Environmental geology focuses on the entire spectrum of human interactions with
the physical environment.
II. Fundamental concepts of environmental geology
A. Human population growth
1. The foremost environmental problem
a. population growth increases the impacts on limited resources
2. Exponential growth
a. a constant percentage of people are added to the population each year, not a
constant number of people
b. growth rate (a percentage)
c. doubling time = 70/Growth rate
3. Human population through history
a. human population growth has coincided with changes in technologies and lifestyles
4. Population growth and the future
a. as population growth continues, it may be difficult to supply sufficient resources
and a high-quality environment
b. carrying capacity: maximum number of people Earth can hold without causing
environmental degradation that reduces the ability of the planet to support the
population
c. rate of increase in population growth peaked in the late 1980s
B. Sustainability
1. Definition
a. development that ensures that future generations will have equal access to the
resources that our planet offers
b. development that is economically viable, environmentally benign, and socially just
2. Limitation of resources
a. recycling is the only solution for providing ample resources
b. limitations of land-use resources
3. The environmental crisis
a. demands on resources and production of wastes by growing human population
C. Systems
1. Concept of systems
a. any part of the universe that we select for study, consisting of several components
that mutually adjust to changes in one another
2. Input-output analysis
a. if input and output are not balanced, changes will occur in the system
b. average residence time = total size of stock or supply divided by the average rate of
transfer through the system
3. Predicting changes in the Earth system
a. uniformitarianism
1) the present is the key to the past (and future)
2) processes we observe today also operated in the past, though not necessarily with
the same magnitude or frequency
3) processes we observe today will also operate in the future and at similar rates
b. impacts of humans on Earth systems
6. Environmental unity
a. one action leads to a chain of subsequent actions in linked systems
7. Earth systems science
a. the study of the entire planet as a system in terms of component subsystems, such as
atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, etc.
D. Hazardous Earth processes, risk assessment, and perception
1. concentration of population and resources increases the impact of natural hazards
2. predictability of natural hazards
a. risk assessment
E. Scientific knowledge and values
1. Scientific method:
a. observation
b. hypotheses: possible explanations for observed phenomena
c. testing of hypotheses
d. theory: a hypothesis that has withstood testing through a sufficient number of
experiments
2. Importance of geologic time
a. distinguishes geology from most other scientific disciplines
b. rates of processes are variable, and important to environmental geology
c. environmental geology is most often concerned with recent geologic time (e.g., the
last 18,000 years, or especially the last few thousand or hundred years)
3. Culture and environmental awareness
a. the entire way of life that we have transmitted from one generation to another
b. the ethical approach to the environment is a recent development
c. a land ethic assumes we are responsible to the entire environment as well as fellow
humans
4. Science and values
a. chosen solutions depend upon how we value people and the environment
b. the next 50 years will require crucial decisions concerning impacts of increased
population on natural resources
Chapter 3 - Minerals and Rocks
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, students should
* Understand minerals in terms of their chemistry and internal structure
* Know the major groups of important rock-forming minerals and their environmental
significance
* Understand the rock cycle and how it interacts with plate tectonics
* Know the three rock laws
* Know the basic rock types and their environmental significance
* Know the basic rock structures
Chapter 3 Summary
This chapter focuses on minerals, rocks, rock structures, and the environmental
importance thereof. The chapter opens with discussions of mineral characteristics,
bonding, and mineral groups, then focuses on the rock cycle and definitions of the
three main rock groups. Following a summary of three main rock laws, the chapter
describes in detail the three main rock groups, their main subgroups, their properties,
and their environmental significance. The chapter closes with a discussion of rock
strength and deformation, as well as the main types of rock structures.
Chapter 3 Outline
I. Minerals
A. Definition
1. a naturally occurring, solid Earth material formed by geologic processes
B. Atomic chemistry
1. Atoms and elements
a. all matter is composed of atoms
b. an element is a chemical substance composed of identical atoms
2. Conceptual model of an atom
a. atoms are composed of three subatomic particles, protons, neutrons and electrons
b. protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) in nucleus
c. electrons (negative charge) found outside nucleus in orbitals or shells
d. number of protons is the atomic number
e. almost entire mass is in nucleus
f. electrons can be lost or gained, forming charged ions
3. isotopes
a. two atoms of same element with different numbers of neutrons
b. isotopes distinguished by atomic mass
C. Minerals
1. formal definition: element or chemical compound that is naturally formed, is
normally a solid, has a characteristic chemical formula, and normally has crystalline
structure
a. minerals can be composed of single elements or as compounds of multiple elements
2. minerals and chemical bonding
a. four types of chemical bonds
1. covalent: atoms share electrons
2. ionic: atoms attracted by opposite charges imparted by gain or loss of electrons
3. Van der Waals: weak attraction between chains or sheets of atoms
4. metallic: electrons shared by all atoms of the solid mass rather than by specific
atoms
b. bonding determines important mineral properties
3. crystalline structure of minerals
a. crystalline structure is the orderly, regularly repeating geometric patterns of atoms
b. unit cell is smallest unit of the geometric pattern
c. crystal lattice is the framework that defines the regular geometric pattern of atoms
in a crystal
II. Important rock forming minerals
A. Common minerals
1. more than 4000 known minerals
a. only a few dozen are common constituents of rocks at or near Earth’s surface
2. hand specimen identification involves appearance and physical properties
a. mineral properties summarized in Appendix A
3. weathering
a. physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at or near Earth’s surface
b. important in forming sediments and soils
B. Silicates
1. make up 98% of mineral mass of Earth’s crust
a. 45% of crust is oxygen, 27% is silicon
b. silicon and oxygen combine with several other elements to make up most silicate
minerals
c. silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the building block of silicates
1. tetrahedra combine in a variety of patterns (e.g., sheets, chains) to form various
types of silicates
2. Quartz
a. SiO2 with network structure of silicon and oxygen atoms
b. most abundant mineral in crust
c. recognized by hardness and conchoidal fracture
d. variety of colors determined by impurities
3. Feldspars
a. aluminosilicates containing silicon, oxygen and aluminum, combined with
potassium, sodium, and calcium
b. network crystal structure
c. most abundant group of rock-forming minerals
d. two main types are alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars
4. Mica
a. sheets of Si-O tetrahedra
b. includes muscovite (colorless, potassium and aluminum rich) and biotite
(ferromagnesian)
5. other important ferromagnesian minerals
a. olivine
b. pyroxene
c. amphibole
d. all tend to be weathered easily
C. Other important rock-forming minerals
1. oxides
a. metal atoms combined with oxygen
b. includes many ores, especially of iron and aluminum
2. carbonates
a. metal ions combined with carbonate ion
b. calcite is most important environmentally
c. chemical weathering of carbonate-bearing rocks produces caverns and sinkholes
3. sulfide minerals
a. metal ions combined with sulfur
b. includes iron pyrite and important ore minerals
c. associated with environmental degradation when exposed to oxygen and water to
produce sulfuric acid
4. native elements
a. minerals composed of single elements
b. includes gold, silver, copper, and diamonds
III. Rock cycle
A. Rock defined
1. an aggregate of one or more minerals
B. The rock cycle
1. the rock cycle is a worldwide rock-recycling system linking subsurface and surface
processes
a. produces three main groups of rocks
2. three main groups of rocks
a. igneous: crystallization of molten rock
b. sedimentary: accumulated layers of sediment from preexisting rocks
c. metamorphic: altered in form and mineral makeup by heat, pressure, and/or fluids
C. Rock cycle and plate tectonics
1. plate tectonics provides several environments for rock formation
a. specific rock forming processes occur at each boundary
2. tectonic processes that drive the rock cycle essential in determining properties of
resulting rocks
IV. Three rock laws
A. Fundamental laws are required to understand Earth history
1. cross-cutting relationships
a. a rock is younger than any other rock it cuts
2. original horizontality
a. sedimentary layers are nearly horizontal when deposited
3. superposition
a. oldest layers of sediments are on bottom and youngest layers are on top of a series
of layers that have not been overturned
V. Igneous rocks
A. Definition
1. rocks that have crystallized from molten rock (magma)
B. Intrusive igneous rocks
1. cool slowly and crystallizes well below the surface of the Earth
2. individual mineral grains can be seen with naked eye
a. phenocrysts are crystals larger than surrounding crystals
3. inclusions are pieces of surrounding rock incorporated into crystallizing magma
4. batholiths and plutons
a. batholiths are largest masses of igneous rock, often exceeding thousands of cubic
kilometers
b. batholiths are composed of smaller intrusions called plutons
5. why magma rises and intrudes other rocks.
a. probable explanation is that once formed, a mass of magma is hotter and less dense
than surrounding rocks
b. rise into crust ceases when density differences are equalized
C. Extrusive igneous rocks
1. crystallize at surface of Earth
a. form from lava or pyroclastic debris
2. fine-grained because rapidly cooled
a. porphyritic textures have large crystals surrounded by smaller crystals
3. volcanic breccia
a. lava flow mixed with cemented fragments of broken lava and ash
4. pyroclastic debris forms tuff and agglomerate
D. Igneous rocks and the environment
1. intrusive rocks are generally strong and resistant to weathering
2. lava flows often exhibit columnar jointing and lava tubes, both of which impart
weaknesses
3. tuff is generally a soft, weak rock
4. careful field investigation is always necessary before large structures are built on
igneous rocks
VI. Sedimentary rocks
A. Definitions and types
1. detrital or clastic
a. form from broken pieces of preexisting rocks
2. chemical
a. deposited when chemical or biochemical processes precipitate dissolved substances
3. diagenesis
a. changes in sediments as a result of burial and fluid passage
B. Sedimentary processes
1. sediment is delivered to sedimentary basin
2. sediment is deposited in strata
3. as basin sinks or sea level rises, several kilometers of sedimentary rocks can be
deposited
4. pressure of overlying rocks and precipitation of minerals from pore waters cement
the rocks
C. Detrital sedimentary rocks
1. classified according to grain size
a. shale
b. siltstone
c. sandstone
d. conglomerate
D. Chemical sedimentary rocks
1. classified according to chemical composition
a. halite
b. gypsum
c. limestone: most abundant of chemical sedimentary rocks
E. Sedimentary rocks and the environment
1. three primary environmental concerns
a. shale, mudstone, and siltstone are often very weak
b. limestone generally not well suited for human use and activity, because of
weathering characteristics
c. cementation may be weak
VII. Metamorphic rocks
A. Definitions
1. rocks changed by heat, pressure and chemically active fluids
2. types of metamorphism
a. high-pressure, low-temperature
b. high-pressure, high-temperature (regional metamorphism)
c. high temperature, low-pressure (contact metamorphism)
B. Foliated metamorphic rocks
1. mineral grains are aligned in parallel layering or banding
2. types
a. slate
b. schist
c. gneiss
C. Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks
1. no alignment of mineral grains
2. types
a. marble
b. quartzite
D. Metamorphic rocks and the environment
1. foundation materials
a. slate is excellent for foundation material and other uses
b. schist is poor because of soft minerals
c. gneiss usually of suitable strength
2. foliation planes are potential planes of weakness
VIII. Rock strength and deformation
A. Definition
1. resistance to failure such as fracturing, sliding, or flowing
a. varies with composition, texture, and location
B. Deformation of Earth materials
1. types of deformation
a. elastic
b. plastic
c. ductile
d. brittle
2. types of strength
a. compressive
b. tensile
c. shear
IX. Rock Structures
A. The term “structural” refers to deformation of rocks or the resulting structures
B. Fractures
1. joints
a. no displacement along fracture
2. faults
a. displacement along fracture
3. problems associated with fractures
a. conduits for fluids
b. zones of weakness
c. fracture is subject to weathering, which widens and weakens it
C. Folds
1. form when layers are shortened by lateral compression
2. types
a. anticline
b. syncline
3. fold belts
D. Unconformities
1. definition and importance
a. significant break or gap in geologic record
b. important in understanding geologic history
c. often form boundary between contrasting rock types
2. types
a. nonconformity
b. angular unconformity
c. disconformity
Ch 05 - Earhquake and Related Phenomena
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, students should
* Understand the relationship of earthquakes to faulting
* Understand how the magnitude of an earthquake is determined
* Know the types of earthquake waves, their properties, and the means by which
strong ground motion is produced
* Understand how seismic risk is estimated
* Know the major effects of earthquakes
* Understand the components of the earthquake cycle
* Understand the methods that could potentially predict earthquakes
* Understand the processes of earthquake hazard reduction and how people adjust to
and perceive the hazard.
Chapter Ch 05 Summary
This extensive chapter on earthquakes covers a diverse array of subjects related to
earthquake processes and earthquake hazard reduction. The chapter begins with a
discussion of earthquake measurement and rating. Several subsequent sections deal
with earthquake locations and earthquake processes, in particular the process of
faulting and types of faults, controls on the amount of shaking experienced as a result
of earthquakes, the components of the earthquake cycle, human influences on
earthquake processes, and the direct and indirect effects of earthquakes. The chapter
closes with discussions of the pitfalls and promises of earthquake prediction, and of
typical human responses to earthquake hazards.
Chapter Ch 05 Outline
I. Introduction to earthquakes
A. Approximately 1 million felt earthquakes per year
B. Earthquakes can be compared in three ways
1. magnitude (energy release)
2. intensity of shaking
3. resulting impact on people and society
II. Earthquake magnitude
A. Earthquake location
1. Epicenter
2. Focus
B. Magnitude
1. moment magnitude
a. measurement of energy released by earthquake
2. Richter magnitude
a. great earthquakes
b. major earthquakes
c. strong earthquakes
C. Earthquake catastrophes
1. Catastrophic (great) earthquakes
a. devastating events that destroy large cities and kill thousands
III. Earthquake intensity
A. Modified Mercalli Scale
1. 12 divisions of intensity based on observations
2. intensity values, assigned at different locations
B. Instrumental intensity
1. determined by dense network of high-quality seismographs
IV. Plate boundary earthquakes
A. Potential damage estimates and planning depend on knowledge of location,
magnitude, and effects
B. Interplate earthquakes
1. occur at or near boundary between two plates
2. most large US earthquakes are interplate earthquakes in western states
V. Intraplate earthquakes
A. Occur within plates
B. Examples
1. New Madrid earthquakes of 1811–1812
2. Charleston earthquake of 1886
C. Intraplate earthquakes in the eastern US are generally more damaging and are felt
over a larger area than are those of similar magnitude in California
VI. Earthquake processes
A. Faulting
1. faulting is analogous to sliding two rough boards past one another
2. fault: fracture or fracture system along which rocks have been displaced
3. slip rate: long-term rate of movement along a fault
4. seismic waves: shock waves produced by sudden rupture of the rocks
5. faults are seismic sources
B. Fault types
1. strike-slip
a. right lateral
b. left lateral
2. dip-slip
a. reverse
b. normal
c. thrust
3. buried faults
a. do not displace or rupture ground surface
b. typically associated with anticlines and synclines
4. faults and rock folding
a. anticlines
b. synclines
C. Active faults
1. active faults: faults active within last 10,000 years
2. potentially active faults: displacement during Pleistocene time (ca. 1.65 Ma to 10
ka), but not Holocene time (last 10 ka).
3. inactive faults: not active in last 1.65 million years
4. paleoseismicity: determination of earthquake history along a fault, on basis of
geologic record
D. Tectonic creep
1. gradual displacement not accompanied by felt earthquakes
2. produces slow damage of roads and structures
3. generally slow and continuous, but may be discontinuous and variable
E. Slow earthquakes
1. fault rupture lasts from days to months, rather than being instantaneous
2. a recently recognized phenomenon
VII. Earthquake shaking
A. Three factors that determine shaking at some location
1. magnitude
2. distance from the epicenter
3. local soil and rock conditions
B. Types of seismic waves
1. P-waves
2. S-waves
3. surface waves
a. created by seismic waves reaching the Earth’s surface
b. move along the surface
c. slower than P- or S-waves
C. Seismograph
1. seismogram: written or digital record of an earthquake
a. continuous line showing vertical or horizontal motions recorded by a seismograph
2. difference in arrival times of P- and S-waves at three seismographs can determine
location of epicenter
3. epicenter and depth of focus can be determined from multiple seismograms through
a mathematical model
D. Frequency of seismic waves
1. frequency: how many waves pass in a given length of time
2. wave period: average time between wave peaks
3. shaking hazards to buildings
a. near epicenter, both short and tall buildings may be damaged by low and high
frequency waves
b. with increasing distance from epicenter, high frequency waves are attenuated
1) nearby earthquakes described as “jolting”
2) distant earthquakes described as “rolling”
E. Material amplification
1. different Earth materials respond differently to seismic shaking
a. shaking on unconsolidated sediments may be much more severe than on bedrock
2. examples
a. Mexico City, 1985
b. Loma Prieta, 1989
F. Directivity
1. amplifies shaking intensity in the direction of fault rupture
G. Ground acceleration during earthquakes
1. strong ground motion can be described as the velocity at which waves travel
through rocks or on surface
2. damage to structures related to two factors
a. amplitude of waves
b. rate of velocity change of the seismic waves with time (acceleration)
1) measured as a fraction or multiple of gravity
3. earthquake waves accelerate ground both vertically and horizontally
4. buildings must be designed for strong accelerations
H. Depth of focus
1. depth of focus strongly influences damage caused by earthquakes
VIII. Earthquake cycle
A. A hypothesis stating that elastic strain drops after an earthquake and
reaccumulation of strain before the next event
1. elastic strain
a. deformation that is not permanent
2. elastic rebound
a. “snap” of rocks back to original shape as elastic strain is recovered
B. Stages of the earthquake cycle
1. long period of seismic inactivity following a major earthquake and associated
aftershocks
2. period of increased seismicity as strain accumulates
3. period of major foreshocks
4. major earthquake
IX. Earthquakes caused by human activity
A. Several human activities are known to increase or cause earthquake activity
1. loading of the Earth’s crust and increased water pressure by building a dam or
reservoir
2. disposing of liquid waste through disposal (injection) wells
3. underground nuclear explosions
X. Effects of earthquakes
A. Shaking and ground rupture
1. fault scarp: surface rupture by vertical motion
2. magnitude of disaster related to intensity
B. Liquefaction
1. transformation of water-saturated sediment from solid to liquid state
C. Landslides
D. Fires
1. shaking can break electrical and gas lines
E. Disease
1. dust from landslides can spread spores
2. shaking can rupture water and sewer lines, causing water pollution by diseasecausing organisms
3. death of animals and people buried in debris produces potential sanitation problems
F. Tsunamis
1. seismic sea waves
2. originate when ocean water is vertically displaced
3. fast, low waves on open ocean slow and grow vertically when they reach shallow
water
G. Regional changes in land elevation
1. caused by vertical deformation, both uplift and subsidence
2. results in flooding of some coastal areas, as well as stranding of coastal facilities
XI. Earthquake risk and earthquake prediction
A. Earthquakes often strike without warning
1. Long-term, probabilistic prediction of earthquake risk is the best possible at present
B. Estimation of seismic risk
1. regional hazard map
a. shows probability of an event or the amount of shaking likely to occur
2. hazardous areas need to be more precisely evaluated
C. Short-term prediction
1. forecasting specifies a relatively short period of time in which an event is likely to
occur
a. depends on precursors
b. precursors are not always reliable
2. precursory phenomena
a. pattern and frequency of earthquakes, such as foreshocks
b. preseismic deformation of the ground surface
c. emission of radon gas
d. seismic gaps along faults
e. anomalous animal behavior(?)
XII. Toward earthquake prediction
A. Working, practical methodology is still a long way off
1. a good deal of information is currently being gathered regarding possible
precursory phenomena
2. medium- to long-range forecasting has progressed faster than expected
a. hazard evaluation
b. probabilistic analysis of areas along active faults
XIII. Sequence of earthquakes in Turkey: can one earthquake set up another?
A. East-to-west series of earthquakes on north Anatolian fault during 20th Century
1. described as “falling domino scenario”
a. one earthquake may set up the next
B. Clusters of earthquakes apparently separated by several hundred years without
earthquakes
C. Understanding of earthquake clustering is important in planning for future seismic
events.
XIV. The response to earthquake hazards
A. Earthquake hazard reduction programs
1. major goals of U.S. program
a. develop an understanding of the earthquake source
b. determine earthquake potential
c. predict effects of earthquakes
d. apply research results
B. Adjustments to earthquake activity
1. warning systems and earthquake prevention are not yet reliable
2. reliable protective measures can be taken
a. structural protection
b. land-use planning
c. increased insurance and relief measures
C. Earthquake warning systems
1. warn of arrival of damaging earthquake waves from event several hundred
kilometers away
2. based on greater speed of satellite radio signal relative to seismic waves
3. many concerns, including false alarms and liability
D. Perception of earthquake hazard
1. many people suffer mental distress after a major earthquake
a. many families moved away from Los Angeles after major earthquakes
b. relief efforts sometimes take too long, as in Kobe in 1995
c. poor building construction may have contributed to death and destruction in 1999
Turkey earthquakes
E. Personal and community adjustments: before, during and after an earthquake
1. community level
a. building codes
b. education
2. personal level
a. home safety check
b. plan of action should a large earthquake occur