Location
Zambia is a country located on the continent of Africa. Zambia is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn which means that it is located in the Tropical Climate
Zone. In 1652 Dutch settlers arrived at the southern part of Africa and started a colony called the Cape Colony. The Cape Colony was started as a trading port where Dutch ships could stop and get supplies for their journey to Asia. For more than two hundred years the Cape Colony was used by European traders and was colonized by Dutch and English settlers. The Cape Colony became a developed colony where the Dutch and English were able to successfully farm wheat and other cereal grains. Large animals were brought to the Cape Colony and used for food, transportation, and work. However, once the Europeans decided to push farther north, their success quickly came to an end.
Land and Climate
Because Zambia is located in the Tropical
Zone, the farming techniques that were so successful in the Cape Colony did not work in African countries north of the Tropic of
Capricorn. Cereal grains could not grow in the hot and humid climate of Zambia and large animals like cows and horses caught tropical diseases that their bodies did not know how to cure. This prevented countries like Zambia from developing large food surpluses and developing at the same rate as the Cape Colony.
Wildlife
Large predatory animals in Zambia made it difficult for Europeans and their animals to live. Insects like mosquitoes spread deadly diseases like malaria to the Europeans who tried to settle in tropical places like Zambia.
Zambia is home to many large animals that are dangerous for humans and domesticated animals to be around.
Carnivorous animals like lions, tigers, hyenas, leopards, cheetahs, honey badgers and odd toed ungulates all live in Zambia’s tropical areas. These animals would prey on

domesticated animals that Europeans tried to raise in Zambia, making nearly impossible for European culture to diffuse into these tropical zones.
Resources
Europeans discovered that many African countries, including Zambia, were rich in precious natural resources like gold and diamonds. Once Europeans discovered these rare resources their major objective became to rob
Africa of its resources, rather than to settle and colonize the land. Europeans stopped trying to settle in large farms and create communities to live, and started building railroads that went to gold and diamond mines.
This meant that instead of developing ways to bring domesticated animals and large scale cereal grain farms to Africa, they built mines that would extract gold and diamonds out of the African soil to be sold in European countries. Trade in Africa was limited to supplies for miners and tools for miners to pull gold and diamonds out of the ground.

Singapore: Overcoming Geographic Challenges
Fifty years ago Singapore was a poor and unknown country. Today, Singapore is one of the wealthiest nations on earth. Even though Singapore is located in a tropical climate zone and is an isolated island, it has been able to overcome many of its geographical disadvantages. Singapore is also a nation that has very little of its own resources.
To help the country of Singapore advance, its leaders designed an economy that they thought would bring in as much business as possible. The government tries to make it as easy as possible for new companies to form in Singapore. In Singapore, it is very easy for people to buy and sell products and it is a very easy place to start a company. Singapore also focuses on using its location as an island to trade. The majority of the Singapore economy is based on trading products with other countries.
When Singapore was colonized by the British, the
Singapore were forced to learn how to speak English. made Singapore a very attractive place to do business
American and British companies. Speaking English has many businesses in Singapore be successful. people of
This has for helped
The country of Singapore is located in the tropical zone. This means that Singapore does not have many domesticated plants and animals that helped societies complex. Singapore has developed a way of getting climate of the become enough food for its people through trade. The leaders of Singapore found a way for companies to produce products to export like electronics and chemicals. This allowed their country to buy all the food that their country wants.
Another way that the Singapore government has helped it become a complex society is by having very strict rules. Drug dealers, gangs, and corrupt businessmen are punished with the death penalty. This makes businesses and tourists feels safe in their country and keeps businesses wanting to do business in Singapore.
The government also invests lots of money in its education system. This keeps highly educated workers in their society and makes businesses want to come there to do business.

Papua New Guinea
Location
Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a volcanic island that is geographically isolated. It is surrounded by dense jungle and rough water which make it hard to travel.
Located 5 degrees south of the Equator,
PNG is one of the most tropical places on earth. It also has many natural dangers, including deadly diseases, insects, and parasites.
Land and Climate
PNG is a volcanic island, meaning it was formed through the eruption of volcanoes. Although the island is incredibly difficult to cross, people have been living there for thousands of years.
It is one of oldest locations for human habitation in the world. Hunter-gatherers have been living there for 40,000 years. The land is divided through the center by a mountain chain. The mountains are a cooler, drier environment than the rest of the island. The northern and southern parts of the island are made up of thick rainforest.
Wildlife
PNG is overwhelmed by tropical disease, especially malaria.
Malaria is a disease transferred to humans through mosquito bites and is often fatal. Animals on the island include a rich variety of reptiles, marsupials, freshwater fish, and birds. However, there are no large animals. For more than 2 million years the island was isolated which means that its plants and animals evolved without ever coming into contact with plants or animals from other places. There are

no wild animals that can be domesticated such as cows, goats, pigs, or horses. Many people on the island suffer from a protein deficiency if they do not live near a source of fish.
Vegetation and Farming
The dry mountains along the center of the island has one of the oldest farming communities in the world. These communities survive on a diet of domesticated wild root crops such as yams and taro. Root crops are difficult to grow because they must be planted individually. They also must be replanted every year. Each root needs its own deep hole that is spaced far enough from the other plants. This takes a lot of time and cannot be done with animal labor. Root crops also do not give humans all the nutrients they need.
Nearly the entire coast is lined with inedible (cannot be eaten) plants like mangrove swamp and tropical palms. Further inland, sago palm is found in the river valleys which can be eaten but offers only a small amount of nutritional value. They also have sugar cane and bananas but these foods do not satisfy all nutritional needs. The islands’ difficult terrain kept farmers separate from each other and prevented them from building powerful agricultural economies.

Mesopotamia
Location
Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lies the land that the ancient Greeks called Mesopotamia. Literally the land between the two rovers, Mesopotamia is a collection of ancient civilizations spanning from the Sumerians to the Babylonians. This rich landscape was geographically lucky and supported large populations of people for nearly 3,000 years.
Land and Climate
Mesopotamia is located in modern day Iraq, but it is best known as the birth place of civilization. Mesopotamia was situated right in the middle of the Fertile Crescent. The landscape was perfect for the development of agriculture (large sized farms). The soil was rich with nutrients. This was because of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. When the rivers flooded in the spring and early summer, the flood waters pushed nutrient rich soil from the bottom of the river over fields. Farmers then planted wheat and barley in the fields. The close by fresh water supply and free fertilizer made farming very easy.
The climate of Mesopotamia during this time period was also very moderate. Temperatures were warm but were not too hot. Regular rain fall ensured that fields would remain wet, but not too wet. The dry air was perfect for storage of plants. This would help create food security for the people. The farmers of the region always had enough food to feed cities. There was so much grain that large storage buildings were created to hold the grain. If the climate had been more humid and wet, the grain would had gone rotten.
Wildlife
The Fertile Crescent was the perfect location to begin large scale agriculture (farming as the only way to get food). The climate and native grass plants (wheat and barley) were important, but so too were the animals. The region was the natural environment for goats and cattle. These two species were perfect for the people. Both animals have good attitudes, live in large groups, have babies quickly and are strong workers. These animals gave the farmers advantages.
The cattle could pull plows (metal tools that are dragged in the ground and cut holes to plant grain in). This made farmers more efficient. Goats were good at clearing fields, and provided food (dairy and meat) as well as fiber for making cloth. These animals were important in allowing people to develop specialized skills.
Resources
Mesopotamia was also a good location to develop specialized skills. Along with domesticatable plants and animals, the region also provided other resources. The region is rich in natural minerals liked gold iron, lead and copper. This allowed workers to develop metals like steel. This metal is very strong and can be used to make tools, weapons, and eventually, buildings. The stones in the region were also perfect to build with. The workers could shape the stones quickly with metal tools and the buildings were strong enough to withstand storms and even earthquakes. These buildings allowed the people of Mesopotamia to create lasting cities. Finally, the abundance of other stone and wood types allowed for the invention tool types.