Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
Attitudes Towards Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
Marianne Cabbat
University of Hawaii at Manoa
1
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
2
Introduction
A lot of attention directed towards bilingual education is often focused on the political or
professional aspects tied to the concept of bilingualism. As was discussed by Ramirez et all (as
cited in Baker, 2011, p. 258), many will often argue over the benefits that may or may not come
with bilingualism or they may argue about whether or not it is worth implementing into school
systems. In comparison, little attention is paid to those actually attaining or are directly affected
by bilingualism unless such information is focused more or less on quantitative scores. However,
it is very necessary to consider for whom and what purpose these arguments over bilingualism
arise, why it is considered important, and what must and can be done in response.
There is often talk of the high benefits that do in fact come from bilingual education, but
if bilingualism occurs in situations where it is undesired, what could ultimately occur? There is
usually a greater focus on the big picture of the hows and whys that go into bilingual education
planning. Yet, fairly little focus is dedicated to taking closer looks into the lives of the
individuals involved in receiving bilingual education and whether or not those receiving such an
education, along with being able to utilize more than one language, really want it or not and for
what reasons. Because there are varying social and personal reasons for which bilingualism is
sought out or implemented on the individual level, one does not necessarily have to enjoy or
detest their bilingualism while being instructed as such and as a result may affect success. In
such a case, what are the general attitudes of those actually experiencing bilingual education as
students? What are their concerns about bilingualism, and what factors lead them to feel this way?
Lastly, given the results of such attitude-focused research, what can be done throughout bilingual
education in order to appease, foster, and maintain an ideal environment for bilingual learning?
These are just a few of the questions that this paper will seek to answer in brevity.
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
3
The Role of Attitude Within Language
In the context of language, what is attitude and why is it important? According to Crystal
(1992, p.93), language attitudes can be defined simply as “the feelings people have about their
own language or the languages of others”. In the realm of bilingualism, individuals, for varying
purposes and through various means, have or are in the process of obtaining at least two
languages in and to their repertoire. Seeing as language also stands as a focal point to culture, it
can be noted that through bilingualism, an individual may seek to take on another cultural point
of view to varying extents. That being said, cultural transfer is not necessarily the easiest of feats
at times. Many factors such as religious differences, differences in value priorities, major
lifestyle differences, and most of all, ignorance, may all affect an individual’s attitude towards
language (Furlan 2002, p. 438).
Ignorance, as Furlan continues to discuss, can easily lead others to become prejudiced
towards a community, and as such, negative attitudes may be unjustly formed towards the
languages of these groups. In the case of bilingual schooling, such divisions in societal groups
may be heavily affected by misconceptions – children of majority groups may internalize
negative preconceptions toward the minority language and children of minority groups may feel
ashamed of their language and become angry towards the larger group. Prejudice is not limited to
social group divisions but may also occur between monolinguals and bi- or multilinguals. As
attitudes towards language affects willingness to learn, in the face of prejudice, problems may
arise that will not only influence a students’ desire to become bilingual but also the further
actions taken towards becoming bilingual (Griego-Jones 1994, pp. 1-2).
Review of Bilingual Attitude Observation Methods
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
4
There are many ways in which attitudes amongst students may be observed. In this paper,
general student attitudes will be discussed from the standpoints of monolinguals and bilinguals
as well as minority groups and majority groups in the same learning environment. Integrative
and instrumental functions may be taken into account as well. Lastly to be discussed are the
influential factors behind these adolescents’ attitudes towards bilingualism which include but are
not limited to their parents, peers, physical location, and society.
Monolingual and Bilingual Attitude Differences
In comparing the difference in language attitudes between monolingual and bilingual
adolescents, a study was done in 2002 amongst users of Slovene and Italian. These observed
subjects came from three majority schools and five minority schools in geographically divided
language usage zones between Italy and Slovenia – Italy Trieste, Italy Gorizia and Slovene Istria.
To a group of 277 students of both sexes at ages 17 to 19, a questionnaire was given as well as a
scale of attitudes towards bilingualism with included items indicative of integrative reasons for
bilingualism as well as instrumental reasons. These items were also framed either negatively or
positively for additional scoring purposes (Furlan, 2002, pp. 439-440).
As a result of this study, it was found that, unsurprisingly, there is a significant
difference in bilingual attitudes dependent on students’ ‘lingualism’ or whether or not they were
monolingual or bilingual. Such a result stemmed from the variance of students’ stances, their
views of themselves belonging to a certain community, and the possible interpersonal
(integrative) and material (instrumental) benefits or damages that may come with bilingualism.
Another large factor in deciding students’ attitudes towards bilingualism is location.
Depending on which area and school the students came from, attitudes differed in response to
instrumental and integrative reasons for becoming bilingual. As mentioned earlier, research was
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
5
conducted within three different areas of language use. In Slovene Istria, an officially established
‘two-way’ bilingual area, both Slovene and Italian are used within the environment. In this kind
of environment bilingualism is viewed as very beneficial and essential to students’ futures within
society. In the two Italian schools, Slovene is only offered within special Slovene-directed
schools, as an L2 in some Italian-directed schools or not at all in others (Furlan, p.441).
In Slovene Istria, the least positive attitude towards integrative functions of bilingualism
came from monolingual students who regarded learning a second language, Italian, as difficult
and practically useless because their Italian-born peers could speak Slovene. In the case of
bilingual students scores were generally highly positive amongst the two bilingual groups
observed. It was deduced that this is because they are already bilingual and have witnessed
integrative benefits from their language use, they seem to appreciate their bilingualism and will
most likely preserve their ability to speak in both languages where the monolinguals are less
likely to take up Italian. However, because of some historical aspects between Slovenia and Italy,
a deeply rooted prejudice between the two areas is also considered a possible hindrance to the
monolinguals’ view of bilingualism, thus reflected in their overall attitude scores (Furlan, p. 442).
Amongst the two Italian cities observed, results were fairly different in comparison with
Slovene Istria, largely in part of bilingualism’s lack of official recognition there. Here, attitudes
towards instrumental, rather than integrative, functions showed the most significant results. To
Slovene students living in Italy, bilingualism is key to social success and bigger life
opportunities. Like in Slovene Istria but in a reversed fashion, as can be imagined, because
Slovene is the minority language in Italy, Italian students do not see the need to be bilingual.
Integrative functions in both Italian cities are unfavorable to both monolinguals and bilinguals. In
this instance as well, historical prejudice is noted to have played a large role in the formation of
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
6
these attitudes (Furlan, pp. 441-442). Because of post-WWII nationalistic sentiments and
tensions between Italy and Slovene, as well as Slovene’s fairly recent declaration of
independence in 1991, many Italian students “inherit” such negative attitudes towards their
Slovene counterparts from older generations and, in return, Slovene students may also feel the
same towards Italians due to their recent claim to freedom as a country (Furlan, p. 442).
Minority and Majority Attitudes in Bilingual China
Within bilingual schools one could expect very different point of views in children
depending on their status as a speaker of the minority language or of the majority language.
Accordingly, in the two studies yet to be reviewed, different locational settings yielded very
different mindsets from the students observed.
In a study done by Gao (2009), Korean and Chinese bilingual students in a Chinese
school seemed to be monogamous in their views of bilingualism and bilingual education. Making
up China’s thirteenth largest ‘Non-Han’ ethnic group, Koreans have established a fairly strong
position for themselves in accordance with China’s politics and economy. With the immigration
and integration of North Koreans to China, China’s Communist Party is supported, causing
Korean to be seen as favorable within Chinese politics and as a language of political power. Also,
with the large-scale movement of Korean immigrants into previously uncultivated lands, a new
area of economic growth arose with the farming of rice paddies. Through this movement and
farming, China-based Koreans are able to connect South and North Korean trade with China.
Through this trade relationship, Korean has grown even more as a language of economic
opportunity.
Given the positive light on the Korean language provided by its favorable economic and
political ties, it can be easily seen that both Chinese and Korean are held in high regard within
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
bilingual schools by both Chinese and Korean students. Chinese students view Korean as a
language that they are “motivated to learn” because of its high political and economic stature
within their home country, and Korean students likewise strive to learn Chinese because it is the
language of their new home and gateway to similar future opportunities (Gao, 2009, p. 5).
Bilingual education was implemented in schools by the government during the mid1980s, later leading China to boast the success of Korean education through bilingual programs
(Gao, p. 8). In Korean-concentrated regions of China two types of school exist – one Koreanbased and one Chinese-based. These schools initially used their respective languages as the main
means of overall instruction with the other language being taught as a subject. However, over
time, the L2 language classes further expanded until use in school evened out between the two
languages.
Within this particular school where the study was being held, the bilingual program
consisted of a fairly even use of Korean and Chinese in instruction. All classes were given in
Korean with the exception of major Chinese classes and English classes, which were given in
Chinese. Language textbooks, which made up a little less than twenty percent of the curriculum
load, saw the equal use of both languages (Gao, p. 10). In carrying out the research, students
were informed of the research study but were otherwise let free to be observed in their everyday
practice of language in the classroom, assembly, and on the playground. However, at least one
interview was held per student to better understand individual thoughts and reasoning.
As a result of these interviews, it was seen that both Korean students and Chinese
students found themselves identifying as ‘half-Korean half-Han’, refusing to align with a single
ethnic group. By declaring this 50-50 identity, they establish their internal views of superiority
7
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
for having two such powerful and valuable languages as assets. One student said of their
experience:
“My mama said to me that I would not be able to learn Korean if I attended Han school
Then since I attend Korean school, I know more knowledge than Han students. And I am
competent in Chinese. Thus I am in an advantageous position when I compete with Han
and Korean counterparts (Gao, p. 15).”
To be able to identify as both Chinese and Korean implies power and privilege (Gao, pp. 11-13).
Thus, due to the bilingual environment created in these schools, both minority and majority
groups were very much satisfied with and welcoming of bilingualism because of its potential
benefits.
Minority and Majority Attitudes in Bilingual America
As the acceptance of bilingualism in China was heavily influenced by the social status of
the languages used, so seemed to be the case with Griego-Jones’ (1994) study of a bilingual
school in America. The results, however, differed greatly from that of the Chinese schools.
Despite being in an environment where use of both students’ L1 and L2 are encouraged with
emphasis on promoting the nurturing of students’ L1, many Spanish students resented being
grouped in reading groups promoting their L1 and often strove to shut it out completely in
exchange for English-only use. However, not only did the Spanish speaking students lean
towards English use as much as possible, so did Spanish-learning English speaking students
(Griego-Jones, 1994, pp. 2-3).
While English speakers choosing to use their L1 over their L2 can be easily understood
as a matter of comfort and confidence, the situation with the Spanish speakers was much less
logically explicable. Yet, digging deeper, one will understandably find that society plays a very
8
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
9
big role in deciding students’ openness to bilingualism. In this case, because of the way students
viewed the status of their culture and languages in contrast to American culture and English
while living in America, native languages of English learners were easily given up with the goal
of ‘being American’ in mind. With language acting as a sign of power, such negative views can
be attributed to America’s deeply rooted history of promoting English monolingualism as to
‘preserve political power’ in the midst of widespread immigration. Likewise, it is because of this
type of reasoning and xenophobia that native English speakers may also shy away from using
their L2s (Griego-Jones, pp. 3-5).
Another factor that may affect students’ views on English lies within the structure in
which a great majority of bilingual programs are actually carried out. Though schools may claim
that their programs are evenly bilingual, it can be seen that their goals seek to pull students
towards English while justifying native language use due to the fact that teaching through native
languages have shown to be the most efficient and effective tool towards learning English rather
than being focused on and developed for its own (Griego-Jones, p.5).
Here, in contrast to the bilingual situation in China, one can see how unequal treatment of
languages in favor of one dominant language can deeply and negatively impact individuals who
face bilingual opportunities. Instead of experiencing the pride that one may feel towards having
two different perspectives and a wider range of possibilities for the future, because of the lack of
large-scale acknowledgment and celebration of different languages and different cultures in this
country, enthusiasm towards bilingualism is hindered in both minority and majority groups.
Common Factors
Throughout this paper three very large and common themes seemed to play a part in
nearly every example provided. These apparent factors are location in which bilingualism efforts
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
10
are taking place, extent of use and future possibilities, and the highly persuasive role of society
and its views on language. However, one other factor that can greatly influence a student’s view
of language is the view of those around them, namely in teachers, parents, and peers. Because
these students are young, they are greatly impressionable and are often able to distinguish and
empathize with much more than most would give them credit for. In a period of time when they
are still very dependent on others for guidance, such large life figures as an instructor, parent, or
peer can really create a very strong imprint on an individual’s growing independent ideals
without even directly addressing their own.
Oliver and Purdie (1998) were able to observe the effects these three roles had on
students of different ethnic backgrounds within three different contextual locations – in class, on
the playground, and at home. Unsurprisingly, findings showed that in parents, peers, and teachers,
students’ L1 was best prioritized within the home rather than in the classroom or on the
playground. Students themselves showed to have similar attitudes to both of their languages but
perceived that parents frowned upon L2 usage in the home while peers and school officials
encouraged L2 usage over the L1 at home (Oliver & Purdie, 1998, pp. 207-208). Such differing
perceptions may cause conflict within the student despite actual preferences from these
influential parties and may lead to limited use of one language depending on the domain. Even
more concerning, conflicting perceptions between the home and school make maintaining a
positive attitude more difficult and may instead lead to bicultural ambivalence and, more
extremely, failure (Oliver & Purdie, p.208).
Suggestions for Future Planning
Because bilingualism occurs in such variant places and circumstances, it is impossible to
suggest anything as a cure-all solution to negative attitudes towards bilingualism. As was
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
discussed, sometimes certain environments simply work well for fostering bilingualism while
others do not. For those environments that are unable to easily maintain bilingualism a bit more
effort must obviously be put in. Recreating a better environment may be a daunting task, but it
can easily be seen that by gauging what it is that students feel and need would more than likely
be a step in the right direction. In situations like that in American bilingual schools, where
society seems to hinder bilingualism, parents and teachers can try to work together as influential
entities to create and provide a brighter outlook on different cultures and offer new perspectives
towards embracing their own and other languages (Griego-Jones, p. 5). Likewise, if there are
conflicting perceptions between usage in school and home, teachers and parents must once again
work together to create a balanced environment in which students may feel at ease with usage of
both languages (Oliver & Purdie, p.208).
Conclusion
In closing, it is very important to consider student attitudes towards bilingual education
because they are what will ultimately show whether or not a program is truly successful.
Although there is even more to take into consideration after discovering students’ needs, if
efforts are sincerely and fully devoted to meeting these needs and finding the best way to do so,
not much can go wrong seeing as the direction will already be set. Building upon what one
already has that is good and keeping aware of the pros and cons of already present resources can
easily define what needs work and what does not as well as what must be brought in to fill in the
gaps. Although much deeper issues such as historical prejudice do exist and may play a very
large part in influencing bilingual attitudes, through time and hard work towards creating new
perspectives, progress may be made. Through such steps can the window to bilingualism be
opened up even wider to accommodate many others even more.
11
Attitudes Toward Bilingualism in Bilingual Children
12
Bibliography
Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Tonawanda, NY:
Multilingual Matters.
Crystal, D. (1992). An encyclopedic dictionary of language and languages. Cambridge, MA:
Blackwell.
Furlan, M. (2002). Bilingualism through the eyes of monolinguals and bilinguals. Attitudes of
adolescents from Slovenia and Italy. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 12(2), 437-444.
Gao, F. (2009). Language and power: Korean-Chinese students’ language attitude and practice.
Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, 30(6), 525-534.
Griego-Jones, T. (1994). Assessing students’ perceptions of biliteracy in two way bilingual
classrooms. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 13, 79-93.
Oliver, R. & Purdie, N. (1998). The attitudes of bilingual children to their languages. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19(3), 199-211.