Test 4 Study Guide
Chapter 10
I.
Attachment and Love – Attachment is a close emotional bond between two people.
A. Infancy and Childhood
1. Social Orientation/Understanding
a. Social Orientation
o From early in their development, infants are captivated by the social
world.
o Face-to-face play often begins to characterize caregiver-infant
interactions when the infant is about 2 to 3 months of age.
o Infants respond differently to people than they do to objects, showing
more positive emotion to people than inanimate objects, such as
puppets.
o Infants also learn about the social world through contexts other than
face-to-face play with a caregiver, such as peer interaction.
o Peer interaction and play improves considerably between 18 months
and 24 months.
b. Locomotion
o As infants develop the ability to crawl, walk, and run, they are able
to explore and expand their social world.
o Once infants have the ability to move in goal-directed pursuits, the
reward from these pursuits leads to further efforts to explore and
develop skills.
c. Intention, Goal-Directed Behavior, and Cooperation
o Perceiving people as engaging in intentional and goal-directed
behavior is an important social cognitive accomplishment, and this
initially occurs toward the end of the first year.
o Cooperation is dependent upon children connecting their own
intentions with peer intentions and using this understanding in
interacting with peers to reach a goal.
d. Social Referencing
o Social referencing is the term used to describe “reading” emotional
cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation.
e. Infants’ Social Sophistication and Insight
o Researchers are discovering that infants are more socially
sophisticated and insightful at younger ages than previously
envisioned.
o This social sophistication and insight is observable in their
perceptions of others’ actions as intentionally motivated and goaldirected and their motivation to share and participate in that
intentionality by their first birthday.
2. What is Attachment?
 Freud theorized that infants become attached to the person or object that
provides oral satisfaction. Harlow’s classic study rebuked this idea.
 Harlow’s class monkey study clearly demonstrated that feeding is not the
crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is
important.

Erikson theorized that physical comfort and sensitive care are key to
establishing a basic trust in infants. This trust is the foundation for
attachment and sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be
a good and pleasant place to be.
 Bowlby stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of life and the
responsiveness of the caregiver. He stresses that both infants and its primary
caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments.
 Following are four phases of attachment development based on Bowlby’s
conceptualization:
o Phase 1 (from birth to 2 months): Infants instinctively direct their
attachment to human figures.
o Phase 2 (2 to 7 months): Attachment becomes focused on one
figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to
distinguish familiar form unfamiliar people.
o Phase 3 (7 to 24 months): Specific attachments develop. With
increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular
caregivers, such as the mother or father.
o Phase 4 (24 months +): Children become aware of others’ feelings,
goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in forming their
own actions.
 Recent research suggests that some of the characteristics of Bowlby’s phase
4, such as understanding the goals and intentions of the attachment figure,
appear to be developing in phase 3 as attachment security is taking shape.
 Bowlby argued that infants develop an internal working model of attachment,
a simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as
deserving of nurturant care.
 This internal working model influences future relationships, emotion
understanding, conscious development, and self-concept.
3. Individual Differences in Attachment
 Ainsworth devised the Strange Situation as an observation measure of
infant attachment.
 In using the Strange Situation, researchers hope that their observations will
provide information about the infant’s motivation to be near the caregiver
and the degree to which the caregiver’s presence provides the infant with
security and confidence.
 Based on how babies respond in the Strange Situation, they are described as
being securely attached or insecurely attached (in one of three ways) to the
caregiver.
a. Securely attached babies use the caregiver as a secure base from which
to explore the environment.
b. Insecure avoidant babies show insecurity by avoiding the mother.
c. Insecure resistant babies often cling to the caregiver and then resist her
by fighting against the closeness.
d. Insecure disorganized babies are disorganized and disoriented.
4. Interpreting Differences in Attachment
 Secure attachment in infancy provides an important foundation for
psychological development later in life.
 Early secure attachment is linked with positive outcomes during childhood
and adolescence, although not all studies have found such continuity.
 Attachment styles can be altered by subsequent experiences, especially
maternal care and life stresses, interact to influence children’s later
behavior and adjustment.
5. Caregiving Styles and Attachment
 Securely attached infants have caregivers who are sensitive to their signals
and are consistently available to respond to their infants’ needs.
 Avoidant babies tend to have unavailable or rejecting parents.
 Resistant babies tend to have inconsistent parents.
 Disorganized babies often have parents that are neglectful or physically
abusive.
6. Attachment in addulthood
o Although relationships with romantic partners differ from those with parents,
romantic partners fulfill some of the same needs for adults as parents do for
their children.
o Secure attachment to parents in childhood is predictive of secure attachment
in adult relationships; however, stressful and disruptive experiences can
lessen this link.
a. Secure attachment style – Security attached adults have positive views
of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly
concerned with their romantic relationships.
b. Avoidant attachment style – Avoidant individuals are hesitant about
getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend
to be distant.
c. Anxious attachment style – These individuals demand closeness, are
less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive.
o Secure attachment in adulthood is linked with many positive outcomes such
as longevity, providing support to those in distress, resiliency, mindfulness,
emotional control, and experiencing trust and commitment in relationships.
o Insecure attachment in adulthood is linked with some suboptimal outcomes,
such as unwanted (yet consensual) sex and relationship problems.
o Attachment categories are somewhat stable in adulthood, but adults do have
the capacity to change their attachment thinking and behavior.
7. Romantic Love
o Romantic love is also called passionate love, or eros.
o It has strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often
predominates in the early part of a love relationship.
8. Affectional Love
o Affectionate love, also called companionate love, is the type of love that
occurs when individuals desire to have the other person near and have a
deep, caring affection for the person.
o Passion and sexual intimacy are more important to young adults than older
adults.
o Affection and loyalty are more important to older adults.
o At all ages, emotional security is ranked as the most important factor in love.
9. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
o The triangular theory of love states that love has three main dimensions:
passion, intimacy, and commitment.
o Infatuation occurs when there is only passion.
o Affectionate love is when intimacy and commitment are strong, but passion
is lacking.
o Fatuous love occurs when there is passion and commitment, but no intimacy.
o If passion, intimacy, and commitment are all strong, the result is consummate
love, the fullest type of love.
10. Falling Out of Love
o Falling out of love may be painful, yet, beneficial if the relationship was
harmful.
o Being in love when the feelings are not returned can lead to many negative
feelings.
o Some people get taken advantage of in relationships.
Chapter 11
•
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-esteem refers to global evaluations of the self; it also is labeled self-worth and self-image. Selfconcept consists of domain-specific evaluations of the self.
1. Issues in Self-Esteem
• There may be a moderate correlation between self-esteem and school performance.
• Correlations between self-esteem and job performance vary greatly, and the actual
relationship is unclear.
• Self-esteem is positively correlated with happiness.
• Self-esteem is negatively correlated with depression.
• Self-esteem is related to perceived physical appearance, from early childhood through
middle age.
• Low self-esteem has been implicated in suicide attempts and anorexia nervosa.
• A recent longitudinal study found that self-esteem during adolescence was linked to adult
adjustment and competence in adulthood.
• Most of the research on self-esteem is correlational rather than experimental.
2. Developmental Changes
• One recent cross-sectional study found that self-esteem decreased in adolescence,
increased in the 20s, leveled off in the 30s, rose in the 50s and 60s, and then dropped in
the 70s and 80s.
• In most age periods, males have higher self-esteem than females.
• Most (three fourths) adolescents have positive self-esteem, although some researchers
have found that the self-esteem of girls drops across the elementary and middle school
years.
• A current concern is that too many of today’s college students grew up receiving empty
praise and as a consequence have inflated self-esteem. Now in college, they may have
difficulty handling competition and criticism.
• Self-esteem can be increased in five ways:
1. Identification of the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence
important to the self
2. Emotional support and social approval
3. Taking responsibility for one’s own self-esteem
4. Achievement
5. Coping
Chapter 12
BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON GENDER
 Gender refers to the characteristics of people as females or males.
 Gender role is a set of expectations that prescribe how females and males should act, think, and
feel.
 Gender typing is the process by which children acquire the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that
are considered appropriate for their gender in a particular culture.
A. Biological Influences
•The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans are sex chromosomes that carry the genetic
material that determines our sex. XX = male; XY = female
1. Hormones
 Estrogens primarily influence the development of female physical sex characteristics,
help regulate the menstrual cycle, and are produced in the ovaries.
 Androgens primarily promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex
characteristics and are produced in the adrenal glands in males and females and by the
testes in males.
 To explore the biological influences on gender, research has focused on individuals who
have been exposed to unusual levels of the aforementioned sex hormones during
development.
 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): Adrenal glands produce abnormally high
levels of androgens in girls. Girls/women are generally less content with being a
female and show a stronger desire in being male than non-CAH peers. They enjoy
and engage in more “masculine” activities.
 Androgen-insensitive males: Males without androgen receptors in their cells; thus,
testosterone cannot affect the cells. If androgen insensitivity is complete, XY males’
bodies look female and they develop a female gender identity.
 Pelvic field defect: Boys exposed to normal levels of testosterone prenatally, but
usually castrated just after being born. These children develop a male gender identity
even if they are raised as girls.
 Identical twin with errant circumcision: One boy twin lost his penis and was
surgically reassigned and raised as a girl. The “girl” never felt comfortable as a girl
and eventually reassigned himself to be a male again. He committed suicide at age
38.
 Although sex hormones alone do not determine behavior, researchers have found links
between sex hormone levels and certain behavior.
 Levels of testosterone are correlated with sexual behavior in boys during puberty.
 Violent male criminals have above-average levels of testosterone.
 Professional football players have higher levels of testosterone than ministers do.
B. Social Influences
1. Social influences emphasize the impact of social experiences on psychological gender
differences:
a. Social role theory
•According to Alice Eagly and others, psychological sex differences are caused
by contrasting roles in society.
•In most cultures, women have less power and control fewer resources than men.
•As women adapted to roles with less power and status, they showed more
cooperative, less dominant profiles than men.
b. Social cognitive theory of gender
•The Social Cognitive Theory of Gender proposes that children’s gender
development proceeds through observation and imitation of adults, the media,
and peers; and through the rewards and punishments that children receive for
gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.
•Bronstein emphasizes that mothers and fathers often interact differently with
sons and daughters:
 Mothers’ socialization strategies typically emphasize more obedience and
responsibility in daughters than in sons, along with more restrictions on their
autonomy.
•Fathers’ socialization strategies typically involve paying more attention to
sons than daughters and expending more effort in promoting their sons’
intellectual development.
•Children also learn about gender from observing other adults in the
neighborhood and in the media.
•Peers reward and punish gender behavior.
C. Cognitive Influences
1. Gender Schema Theory
•Gender schema theory states that gender typing emerges as children gradually
develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in
their culture.
•A gender schema is a mental framework that organizes the world in terms of male
and female.
•Children are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with
their developing schemas.
Gender Similarities and Differences
•When looking at differences between the sexes, it is important to remember that the
differences are averages (not all females versus all males).
•Even when differences are reported, considerable overlap exists between the sexes.
•The differences may be primarily caused by biological factors, sociocultural factors, or both.
1. Physical Similarities and Differences
•There are a variety of physical differences between men and women.
•Women have about twice the body fat of men.
•Males grow to be 10 percent taller than females.
•Males and females differ in their sex hormones.
•Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders.
•Males have higher levels of stress hormones, which cause faster clotting and higher
blood pressure.
•Several differences have been found with respect to males’ and females’ brains:
 Female brains are smaller but have more convolutions (folds) which means that there
is more surface brain tissue in females than in males.
 A part of the hypothalamus associated with sexual behavior is larger in males.
 An area of the parietal lobe associated with visuospatial skills is larger in males.
 When gender differences in the brain have been revealed, in many cases they have not
been directly linked to psychological differences.
 There are far more similarities than differences in the brains of females and males.
2. Cognitive Similarities and Differences
•Gender experts stress that the cognitive differences between females and males have
been exaggerated.
•Most research finds that males are better at visuospatial skills and females have better
verbal abilities, although there is considerable overlap in scores.
•Recent studies have found no gender differences in math
•Females earn better grades and complete high school at a higher rate than boys.
3. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
•Boys are more physically aggressive than girls, especially when provoked. The
difference occurs in all cultures and appears very early in children’s development.
•When verbal aggression is considered, girls appear to be equal in aggression to boy, or
perhaps even more aggressive.
•Relational aggression involves harming someone by manipulating a relationship and is
more common in girls.
•Beginning in early adolescence, girls say they experience more sadness, shame, and
guilt, and report more intense emotions, whereas boys are more likely to deny that they
experience these emotions.
•Males show less self-regulation of emotions which can lead to behavioral problems.
2. Gender Controversy
 Controversy continues about the extent of gender differences and what might cause them.
 Some focus on the evolutionary foundation for gender differences.
 Some focus on the social conditions that create gender differences.
 Janey Shibley Hyde concludes that gender differences have been greatly exaggerated.
 A recent meta-analysis by Hyde found that gender differences were either
nonexistent or small in most areas, including math ability and communication.
 Gender differences in physical aggression were moderate.
 The largest differences occurred for motor skills, physical aggression, and
sexuality.