ONLINE SUPPLEMENT
Quantitative variables useful for the development of mechanistic simulation models of
aphid flight, primarily relating to the four general principles given in the paper and should
be read in relation to the discussion therein.
Table S1: Flight parameters for uplift at the source (flight initiation). This table
summarises key boundary values obtained from the literature for each environmental factor
known to affect aphid flight initiation.
Parameter
Value/Notes
Boundary layer
Above 1m from the ground aphid movement is [1] Broadbent (1948);
controlled by the wind
[2] Campbell
and Ridout (2001); [3]
Compton (2002); [4]
Taylor (1974)
Aphids can’t fly into wind stronger than approximately
[5] Haine (1955); [6]
0.5ms−1 (2kmh−1).
Loxdale et al. (1993)
Wind effects
A large number of papers state that aphids do not take
off in wind speeds above 8kmh−1.
Source
[7] Bottenberg and
Irwin (1991); [8]
Davies (1939); [5]
Haine (1955); [9]
Johnson (1962); [10]
Kennedy (1990); [11]
Kennedy and Booth
(1963); [12] Stapley
(1949); [13] Thomas
and Vevai (1940)
Evidence from suction traps shows that aphids will fly in [14] Johnson (1953)
high winds.
Ascent rate
Minimum
temperature
threshold
High winds delay but do not inhibit take-off.
Continuous wind velocities of 5kmh−1 caused a delay of
4-10 hrs, and wind speeds of 8 kmh−1 caused a delay of
24 hours or more. However, after these extensions
migratory flight occurred with regularity, when in a
highly active state.
[15] Walters and
Dixon (1984)
Aphids will still take off in wind velocities of
approximately 10-11 kmh-1
Migrant alate aphids ascend rapidly up into the
atmosphere if they are carried by convective updrafts
with rates of ascent measured at up to 3ms-1
[5] Haine (1955)
Without an updraft, aphids may climb rapidly when in a
migratory state, e.g. 0.25ms-1 (Aphis fabae)
In the UK the temperature threshold for flight varies
with season for R. Padi:
SPRING: min temp = 14°C; 50% takeoff = 16-17°C;
100% takeoff = 13-14°C
[17] David (1988)
[16] Gatehouse
(1997)
[15] Walters and
Dixon
(1984);
SUMMER: min temp =
11°C; 50% takeoff = 13-14°C; 100% takeoff = 15°C
AUTUMN: min temp
= 3°C; 50% takeoff = 9-10°C; 100% takeoff = 13°C.
Equations given for range of temperatures.
Maximum
temperature
threshold
Humidity
Flight window
Light
A study in Uppsala, Sweden, showed that the
temperature threshold for flight was highest in spring
(16-17 °C) when leaving the primary host and lowest in
autumn (9-10°C) while the threshold in summer is 1314°C (flight between grasses).
[18] Wiktelius (1981)
This may relate to temperatures over a time period
(days)
[19] Kleuken, 2009
Cereal aphids take off at 16°C
Aphis fabae or Myzus persicae take off at about 17°C
The maximum is presumed to be about 31°C
[20] Klingauf, 1987
[9] Johnson, 1962
[21] Robert, 1987;
[15] Walters and
Dixon, 1984; [22] De
Barro and Maelzer,
1993 (see also
references in [19]
Kleuken 2009)
Early research showed that humidity should be lower
than 70% for migration to occur.
[12] Stapley, 1949; [8]
Davies, 1939; [13]
Thomas and Vevai,
1940 (all cited by [23]
Johnson, 1954)
After acclimitization aphids will take off readily even if
humidity is 50-100% RH, therefore the effect of
humidity is considered irrelevant.
[24] Lewis and
Siddorn, 1972;
The period between moulting and taking flight varies
from 6-36 hours.
Johnson, 1953
Wing muscle autolysis occurs in as little as 2-3 days
after moult.
[6] Loxdale et al.,
1993; [25] Dixon,
1988; [26] Broadbent,
1949; [14] Johnson,
1953; [27] Hardie et
al., 1990; [28]
Johnson et al., 1957;
[29] Cockbain, 1961
[21] Robert, 1987
In general, take-off occurred at light intensities of 1000
lux (approx 3.85 Wm-2) and higher, with no upper limit.
Laboratory studies have shown lower limits but such
limits are considered negligible in the field.
Table S2: Flight parameters for atmospheric transportation. This table summarises key
boundary values obtained from the literature for each environmental factor known to affect
aphid atmospheric transportation.
Parameter
Flight speed
Flight
distance
Flight
duration
Value
Maximum = 0.9 ms-1 (3.24 kmh-1)
Source
[3] Compton, 2002
[21] Robert, 1987
Flight speed ranges from 0.8-3.3kmh-1
Most migration is of the order of 20-50km
[30] Ward et al.,
1998;
Average flight time spring migrants Aphis fabae: 19.3 [31] Nottingham and
min, R. padi: 36 min
Hardie, 1989; [32]
Average flight time autumn migrants (Aphis fabae): 184 Nottingham et al.,
min, R. padi: 110 min
1991
Average flight time is 32-260 mins for flights >1 min [11] Kennedy
duration (average 105 min), Aphis fabae
Booth, 1963
Altitude
and
Estimated percentages for aphids predicted to remain Reynolds
and
airborne after x seconds: e.g. 0.1% aphids remain Reynolds, 2009
airborne after 3 hours.
Aphids may be carried long distances by winds at 300- Taylor, 1965: quoted
1500m
in [24] Lewis and
Siddorn, 1972, pp253
Insects were common in layers below 1000m, and were
observed up to height of about 2.5km
[33] Leskinen, 2011
Most winged aphid migrations occur between 0.12 and [34] Fabre et al. 2010
1200m of height, in air layers where aphids are randomly
distributed by turbulent atmospheric diffusion over a short
distance.
[35] Isard et al. 1990
Long
distance
flight
termination
Aphid density generally decreases systematically with
altitude.
Renewed visual responsiveness to plant-related
wavelengths occurs, especially to yellow. Aphids are
attracted to wavelengths > 500mμ, especially yellow,
also green and orange. Actively bypass blue to ultra
violet spectrum. Tested in the field, but some species are
less sensitive.
[3] Compton (2002);
[36] Kennedy et al.
(1961); [6] Loxdale et
al. (1993);
Table S3: Flight parameters for appetitive flight. This table summarises key boundary
values obtained from the literature for each environmental factor known to affect aphid
appetitive movement.
Parameter
Wind effects
Value
Source
Alate aphids lose control of their flight at wind speeds of [5] Haine (1955); [6]
around 2kmh−1 therefore lower wind speed is required for Loxdale et al. (1993)
appetitive flight.
Parameter
Flight speed
Value
Maximum = 0.9 ms-1 (3.24kmh-1)
Source
[3] Compton, 2002
[21] Robert, 1987
-1
Flight speed ranges from 0.8-3.3kmh
Flight
To obtain the maximum distance flown by foraging aphids, [11] Kennedy
duration and the maximum flight speed can be multiplied by the total Booth, 1963
distance
foraging flight time of an aphid, which is about 30-240
minutes (influenced by many factors, e.g. habitat and
exhaustion). The resultant maximum distance would be
around 200 m (without wind assistance). The majority of
flights will be much shorter, just a few metres with flights
lasting only a few seconds.
and
Apterous aphids walk very small distances from plant to [37] Hodgson, 1991;
plant (at a speed of around 5-20cm/min), or may ‘run’ Other
references
from 15-35cm/min.
given in [21] Robert,
1987, p299
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