The meaning of Philosophy
Philosophy derives from the word “philos” which means “love” and “Sophia” which means
“wisdom.” Combining together, philosophy means “the love of wisdom.” It shows that human being
is naturally a philosopher himself because he loves to think, ask the question, and find out the
solution of the problem.
Philosophy also means the subject that study about human thought through the thought of
ancient philosopher. As human thought is vary and changeable, the philosophy or human thought is
changed all the time. For example, in the ancient Greek, philosophers believed in gods of nature who
cause everything but nowadays there are many thoughts about gods or even God. People have
different beliefs due to many factors, such as experiences or environment.
Content of Philosophy
Philosophy consists of 3 contents: Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Axiology
Metaphysics is to study the question of “what is Reality?” As philosophers try to explain the
meaning of reality, Ontology deals with the nature of humanity which is divided into Idealism (Only
spirit is reality, matter is not reality) and Materialism (Matter is reality, spirit is not real).
Epistemology is to study the question of “How to know Reality?” by using the theory of
knowledge through reason and experience. There are two important words: Subjectivity (depend on
an individual) and Objectivity (look at thing as it is, universally accepted)
Axiology is other contents of philosophy that deal with Ethics, Aesthetics, and
logic/reasoning. Deduction is using the general statement to support the experience but Induction is
using the experience or observation to make the conclusion.
Ethical Criteria is how to judge right or wrong: Absolutism and Relativism
1. Absolutism  Always absolutely true, universally accepted
2. Relativism  No absolute criteria, depend on individual, time, place or situation
Early Greek philosophers
Before Pre-socratic period, people believe in gods of nature, gods are everywhere and they
are the cause of natural disasters. So people have to believe in gods in order to save from natural
disasters. But in Pre-socratic period, philosophers try to explain the natural disasters. They believe
that there must be the law of nature that can explain all the natural disaster. Therefore if they can
know the law of nature, they understand and explain the natural disaster. That is why they come up
with the concept of the first element to explain the Ultimate Reality. The first element is something
which everything are originated from. The first element are vary and different among the ancient
Greek philosophers
The first one who started this concept is “Thales” He observed the world and find out one element
that is in many things which is “water.” He thought that water is necessary for everything that exists
and it can be changed into another form. Therefore the first element for Thales is water.
At the same time, he encouraged his students to look for better answers until the fixed
answer is reached. This is the philosophical style.
Then “Anaximander” disagreed with Thales because many elements are not absorbed in
water. The first element should be something that is eternal, ageless, boundless, and infinity. So the
first element for Anaximander is “Formless Matter (Apeiron)” because formless matter can disposed
to accept any kind of form
After that, “Anaximenes” thought that formless matter is not understandable. It is nonsense and cannot be proved. He believed that the first element should be an element that can
transform into thing. So his Ultimate Reality is the “Air” because people cannot survive unless we
breathe air. He explained that air can transform to other objects by the process of condensation
(getting colder and become a solid state) and rarefaction (ratify or become warmer and generate
heat). These processes give air capable to generate fire, wind, cloud, water, etc.
Later on, “Heraclitus” came up with the new answer that “Changing or Becoming” is the
Ultimate Reality because he noticed that everything is change during the time. For example, the
river that we step in each time is not always the same river because the river flows all the time. As
this world is the world of change, Heraclitus let the change itself as the Ultimate Reality. Nothing is
permanent, except “change” itself. Therefore, the first element for him is “Fire” because all things
are an exchange for Fire.
“Parmenides” disagreed with Heraclitus because he thought that becoming and changing is
impossible. It is not real nature of all things. Nothing can change and become what they are already
are. It is only a part of a continuous process. For example, human cannot change into human
because it is already human. However, human can be born, getting old, and die. They can change
from one form to another form but they cannot change what they are really are. As a result, he
stated that the Ultimate Reality is “Permanent.”
Combining the thought together, “Empedocles” stated that the Ultimate Reality is the “Four
Elements” which are Earth, Fire, Water, and Air. All things are originated from the combinations of
only these 4 elements in different proportions.
Finally, “Democritus” developed the theory of Empedocles and stated that the four
elements can be reducible into the smallest unit of matter which cannot be reduced anymore. That
is “Atom.” Atom is permanent but it has motion because atom has void, so movements and changes
are possible.
Classical Greek Philosophers
Sophists
Sophists are those who think they are wise. Compare to nowadays, sophists are lawyer or
attorney who can use persuasive speaking. In court, they can say anything to make you right. One of
the famous sophists is “Protagorus” his main thought is “Man is the measure of all things.” He
believed that everyone have different thought; therefore, they have different reality. So, there is no
absolute Ultimate Reality for Sophists because it depends on individuals.
Socrates
Socrates thought that Sophist’s approach cannot make knowledge or Reality possible
because it is only an idea of individuals. However, Socrates believed that there must be a Universal
Truth in order to live. He came up with the teaching “Know thyself.” This means knowing about
ourselves that knowledge is in our mind but it is limited. For Socrates, knowledge is virtue. So we
need to use inductive method of Dialogue to gain knowledge about Universal Truth.
Socrates was considered as the smartest man in Greek; however, he claimed that “What I
know is that I know nothing.” So he walked and asked the people in Athens who said that they are
wise whether they have knowledge or not by using the “Socratic Method of Dialogue” which is to
ask questions to find the answer. But No one could answer his questions. This made them so
embarrassed. As a result, they accused him that his teaching is against gods. Finally he was force to
eat Hemlock, poisonous plant, and died.
Plato
Plato agreed with Socrates that we must have knowledge in order to know the Truth. So he
came up with “The Two World Theory”: World of Idea and World of Form (Visible World).
World of Idea (World of Form) is the origin of human knowledge. Everything is this world is
transcendental, absolute, reality, universal, and permanent. All things in the world of Ideas are the
original form or the universal form of all things in sensible world.
World of Material or Visible World is the world where human are in. This is the world of
received from. Everything in this world is the copy of those in the world of Idea. Because everything
in Visible World is imperfect, people try to be perfect or achieve the perfection of the World of Idea.
The way to achieve the perfection is to use the reason and wisdom through the 5 senses and
experiences.
According to Plato, only 5 senses and experience is not enough to achieve the World of Idea
or the Universal Truth. We need to use reason and wisdom too. For example, The Allegory of the
Cave, cavemen see the big shadow of the object on the wall and perceive that it is big and awful but
it is, actually, a mirage. So they have to use reason and wisdom that the big shadow they have seen
is shadow of the object placed in front of the light. If they can find the way to get out of the cave,
they will see the world different from what they have seen in the cave and that is the truth.
Aristotle
Aristotle disagreed with the Two World Theory because it could not explain the cause of
motion or the changes in the visible world. He believed that the cause of motion must be sought in
things themselves. So he adapted and combined Plato’s theory and stated that World of Idea (World
of Form) is in the Visible World because “Forms already exist in matter.” We need experiences and 5
senses to gain knowledge.
According to Aristotle, there is a Universal Truth and it is in this world, World of Material or
Visible world. He stated that All things in this world are already original, not a copy one. For example
people are original. They are not copy of the others. Even thought they are born from father and
mother, they are different from their parents. Only some parts or characters of the child are like
their parents. Moreover, Aristotle said that “Universal is a common part of particular.” Whatever
which is common in human are the Universal but the difference among them are each individual’s
original.
This can not only apply to human but it can also apply to all things, such as animal or plant.
In case of animal, each cat is different of its color, size, or behavior. But it has something in common
which is two eyes, one long tail, walking with 4 legs, have claws, etc. These common things are
universal but the differences among them are their original. Therefore everything is unique.
Another theory of Aristotle is “The Law of Causation” which is 4 causes as the explanation of
everything.
1. The Material Cause  is the basic stuff or material which everything is made
2. The Formal Cause  is the form, size and shape of things
3. The Efficient Cause  is something or someone that put the material into the form it is in
4. The Final Cause is the purpose of all things; therefore, everything has purpose
Objects or Things
Causes
Wooden Desk
Strawberry Smoothies
Automobile
The Material
Cause
Wood, nail
Strawberry, ice, water, syrup,
milk
Steel, Automobile parts,
tire, mirror, etc.
The Formal
Cause
Form of table with 4
legs
A glass of Pink smoothies
with strawberry taste
blueprint of car
The Efficient
Cause
Carpenter with skills
Blender and glass
Machinery and mechanics
The Final
Cause
Wooden Desk for using
in the school
Strawberry smoothies for
drink
Automobile as a vehicle
Comparison of Classical Philosophers
Philosophers
Ultimate Reality or Universal Truth
Objectivity Subjectivity

Ethical
Criteria
Sophists
No, it depends on an individual.
Relativism
Socrates
Use Socratic Method of Dialogue to
reveal the Universal Truth

Absolutism
Plato
Yes, it is in the World of Idea (World of
Form)

Absolutism
Aristotle
Yes, it is in the World of matter (Forms
already exist in Mattter)

Absolutism
Hellenistic Period
In this period, there are a lot of wars such as Persian war and Peloponnesian wars. It is the
declining of Greek. Then, Greek belonged to Macedonia. Later on, the war between Macedonia and
Persia occurred. Finally Alexander the Great of Persia took control all over Greek. Alexander the
Great conquered and expanded territories and also culture. He expanded the Greek culture to Egypt
and India. Therefore, Greek culture is mixed with other cultures. That’s why we called it Hellenistic
Period.
Hedonism
Hedonism derived from Greek word “Hedo” means “Pleasure.” This is the school of
philosophy which believe that pleasure is the goal of life. If you eat, drink or be married and you feel
happy, do it. Because they think that only now and here is sure, tomorrow is never come, they
should find the happiness and receive all the opportunity that provide them the happiness. If they
refuse the opportunity, tomorrow they may die and cannot experience the happiness anymore. So
they had better accept the happiness from any situation.
For example, if you are invited to go to the party or any special occasion, according to the
teaching of Hedonism, you should go and enjoy the moment of happiness by eating and drinking as
much as you can as if today is the last day of your life.
The way to gain the happiness for Hedonism is through 5 senses and experiences.
1. Eye  see beauty
2. Ears  hear beautiful sound
3. Nose  smells good fragrance
4. Tongue  taste delicious feed
5. Body  touch softness
Epicureanism
This is the philosophy based on the teaching of “Epicurus”. It considered as Hedonism that
we should find the happiness or pleasure for our life. However, Epicurus believed that here and now
is sure but tomorrow or the future also sure, unlike Hedonism that the future is not sure. Epicurus
focused on the longest happiness. So, he believed that we should seek the happiness or pleasure at
the present time and try to avoid pain in order to save our life for the next happiness that will come
in the future.
The Ultimate Reality for Epicurus, influenced by Democritus, is Atom and Void. Moreover, he
believed that faith in God is a result of “Human Imagination.”
Cynicism
Cynicism believed that man should delete all passion and wealth, then practice the “simplest
live.” Cynicism derived from the Greek Word for “dog”. So, people should live like a dog. Dog does
not store food for tomorrow. To gain happiness, Cynicism avoids all the necessary things and lives as
simple as they can. This is influence by Socrates, who valued Virtue and cared little for wealth and
accepted opinions.
Stoicism
Stoicism named from the person name “Stoic.” His business ship sunk, so he lost his
business. He began to study cynicism. But living like a dog did not help him to have the best life.
Stoic, also, did not believe that pleasure could bring him the best life. So he believed that he should
do only necessary things which are good and right. He also believed that “One does your duty
because duty commands you to do it, not because of the consequence might bring.” It means that
we do not do good things for expecting something back but we do it because it is the duty to do.
Comparison of Hellenistic Philosophy
Philosopher
Hedonism
Epicureanism
Cynicism
Stoicism
Goal
Pleasure
Pleasure
Inner peace
Inner peace
Practice
Seek happiness
only for today
Seek happiness for today
and save life for
tomorrow
delete passion
and live like a
dog
Do only what is
good and right
How to gain
knowledge?
5 senses
5 senses
wisdom
wisdom
Medieval Period
In this period, Philosophical thought declined because there were a lot of wars. Social
system became more hereditary and feudalism. Christianity became dominant and it was called The
Dark Age. During this period, Jesus was already born and Christianity had a great impact on
philosophy. So philosophy and religion during the medieval period ware dealing with the existence
of God. There are two important philosophers during this period.
St. Augustine
He was the one who brought back the philosophy from Greek. He was influenced from Plato.
He believed that human should use reason to achieve the Ultimate Reality. However the Ultimate
Reality for St. Augustine is God. Unlike Plato, there was no God at Plato’s period. Therefore,
according to St. Augustine, in order to know the Ultimate Reality which is God, we should use the
reason.
St. Thomas Aquinas
He was influenced by Aristotle. He believed that knowledge came from 5 senses,
experiences, and observation. This method must be used in order to know God.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, he explained the reason why God exists;
1. God exists as the first mover. The world is moving but it cannot move itself. There must be
someone who makes the world in motion. That person is God.
2. God exists as the 1st cause. Everything has cause and the one who cause it is God.
3. God is necessarily exists. He must be there for future emergency.
4. God exists to be the perfection. Everything in the world is imperfect. There must be
someone who is perfect, so that everyone can participate his perfection. That person is God.
5. God exists as an ordinator. He is the one who make the world in order.
Modern Age
In this period, there are two approaches which are Consequences and Means. The
philosopher who thought that consequence is more important is John Stuart Mill. In the opposite,
Immanuel Kant thinks thought that means is more important.
John Stuart Mill
He is considered as Utilitarianism. He believed in “Greatest Happiness for the Greatest
Numbers.” That means everyone must do anything for the sake of the majority. The morality or
good depend on the degree of happiness of majority. His thinking seems to encourage people to
emphasize on the majority rather than oneself.
For example, if one wants to donate some money for somebody. There are 3 choices:
donate money for building the school in rural area, buy food and cloth for AIDs patients, or building
the house for street dog. According to Utilitarianism, one should donate money for building the
school in rural area because it can expand the education to the rural area. Therefore, it provides jobs
for teachers and education for students. Eventually those students can use their knowledge to serve
the society in the future.
Immanuel Kant
Opposite to John Stuart Mill, Immanuel Kant emphasize on mean or method rater that the
consequence. He believed in “Duty for Duty Sake.” So he came up with “Kantian Ethics of
Deontological” which are:
1. Moral principle must hold universally. Everyone must make the decision based on the
moral principle or rules.
2. Reason alone can deliver knowledge of principles that hold universally as duties.
3. Duties to do good. People do good things because it is duty, not emotion.
4. Categorical Imperatives
Comparison between John Stuart Mill and Immanuel Kant
John Stuart Mill
Immanuel Kant
Consequence (Focus on result)
Mean (focus on method)
Relativism
Absolutism
Morality is Happiness
Morality is Universal law