Running head: ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
An Overview of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Implications in
Psychiatric Nursing
Trina Skinner
Stenberg College
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ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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An Overview of Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development and the Implications in
Psychiatric Nursing
Eric Erickson, (German-born) American psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist
is best known for his theory of the stages of psychosocial development that occur throughout the
lifespan of human beings (Wikipedia, 2012). Erickson’s theory consists of a total of eight stages
of psychosocial development beginning with infancy, and ending in late adulthood. Each stage of
this theory presents a potential conflict for which an effective solution is established that would
support a most favorable outcome if the proposed solution were applied to the appropriate stage
(Cherry, 2012). The conflict presented at each developmental stage of the theory directly
correlates with a marked event in which each conflict revolves around. Each stage of Erickson’s
theory “arises because a new dimension of social interaction becomes possible with increasing
maturity” (Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981, p. 526). When applied to the field of mental
health and wellness, Erikson’s stage theory has the potential to offer significant insight into
understanding how and to what extent an individual’s psychosocial development pertains to the
prevalence of mental illness, as well as how healthcare provision can draw on aspects of this
theory to aid in effective management and treatment of mental illness. Very well-stated thesis.
This particular theory is “cast in eight relatively separate “epigenetic” stages, each of
which has its own distinctive goal to be attained if “healthy” personality is to be achieved
(Erikson, 1959, 1963, 1968 as cited in Rosenthal et al., 1981, p. 526). The eight stages of
Erickson’s psychosocial development theory include: infancy, early childhood, preschool, school
age, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and maturity (older adulthood).
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Infancy includes the time of birth to18 months old. The basic conflict outlined in this
stage is Trust vs. Mistrust. The pertinent event associated with infancy is feeding, and the
possible outcome or solution is as follows; If a child’s caregiver(s) create a supportive, reliable,
and affectionate environment, a sense of basic trust will develop within that child. A lack of
provision of loving care may result in a child’s mistrust in his/her environment (Cherry, 2012).
Early Childhood refers to the duration between 2 and 3 years old. The basic conflict at
this stage is one of Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The pertinent event at this stage is toilet
training. The solution/outcome vital to this stage is that toddlers develop a sense of independence
in terms of the ability to exert control over performance of physical skills. Success in meeting the
outcome of this stage will result in a heightened sense of autonomy. Failure may result in
feelings of shame and self-doubt in their abilities (Cherry, 2012).
The next stage in Erikson’s theory is preschool, children ages 3-5 years old. The basic
conflict at the preschool level is one of Initiative vs. Guilt. A pertinent event at this stage of
development is exploration. The solution/outcome at this stage requires children begin learning
how to assert themselves and take initiative to control and establish power over their
environment. Success at this stage will result in a child developing a sense of purpose. A child
that attempts to exert an excess of power over their environment may experience disapproval
from authoritative figures resulting in feelings of guilt (Cherry, 2012).
Primary school age occurs from age 6 to11 years of age. Basic conflict at the primary
school stage relates to Industry vs. Inferiority. The pertinent event associated with this stage is
school. At this stage of development children learn to apply their minds to new social and
academic tasks. Success of this outcome will likely instill a sense of competency and
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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accomplishment in the child. Failure to meet these developmental tasks may result in a sense of
inferiority.
Adolescence includes ages 12-18 years old. Basic conflict during adolescence relates to
Identity vs. Role Confusion. The pertinent event during the adolescent stage is social
relationships. At this stage the solution/outcome is critical as Erickson describes this stage as
central to his theory as a whole because when an individual reaches adolescence he/she begins to
explore and implement various expression of ‘self’ in order to form their personal identity. In
order to meet the criteria necessary to succeed in this stage the individual must develop a strong
sense of self. If the established sense of self is not “rooted in family, race, or ideology- adulthood
becomes very difficult, with genuine intimacy being almost impossible [rendering] stable longterm relationships unlikely” (Rosenthal et al., 1981, p. 526).
Young adulthood refers to age 19-40 years old. The basic conflict during young
adulthood focuses on Intimacy vs. Isolation. The pertinent event associated with this stage is
formation of relationships. At this stage of development “Young adults struggle to form close
relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated” (Myers,
2010, p. 202). It is important to maintain and awareness that Erikson’s stages are not separate but
rather merge from one to the next. Studies indicate that a poorly established sense of sense (as in
adolescence who prove unsuccessful in forming a strong personal identity), “those with a poor
sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression” (Cherry, 2012).
Middle adulthood concerns ages 40-65 years. The basic conflict of the middle-aged adult
focuses on Generativity vs. Stagnation. The pertinent event at this stage of development being
Work and parenthood. In this stage adults feel a need to create and nurture things that will
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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outlast their mortal existence. In middle age people generally develop a passion for contributing
to the world, usually through raising children and/or in regards to vocation. Success at this stage
of development results in feelings of accomplishment and increased self-esteem and self
confidence. Failure to accomplish the task set out in this stage may result in an individual’s
perceived lack of purpose in life (Myers, 2010, p. 202).
Finally, the last stage of psychosocial development maturity (65 years – death), is
discussed. The basic conflict identified during maturity is one of Ego integrity vs. despair. The
pertinent event associated with this stage of the theory is reflection on life. In this final stage of
development, older adults self reflect on their lives and depending on their view of perceived self
accomplishments or failures may develop a sense of self satisfaction or feelings of emptiness and
despair. Success at this stage may invoke feelings of wisdom, whereas failure may trigger
feelings of bitterness, regret, and deep sadness (Cherry, 2012).
Erikson’s proposed theory of psychosocial development has come under a considerable
amount of scrutiny and criticism (source). One of the major drawbacks of this theory that critics
tend to focus on is the lack of empirical evidence to support it (source). From an experimental
standpoint Erikson’s critics contend that his theory has “relied for validation more upon
subjective clinical impression and logical argument than on empirical data” (Rosenthal et al.,
1981, p. 526). Nonetheless, Erickson’s stage theory of psychosocial development remains an
important element of the discipline of psychology in regards to human development and
continues to maintain a wide range of global supporters despite such criticisms as stated above
(source).
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Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development offers a valuable opportunity
to enhance healthcare provider’s comprehension of psychiatric nursing theory and practice in
caring for individuals living with one or more diagnosed mental illnesses.
In order to validate Erikson’s theory it is critical that the reader understands that a lack of
mastery in one stage of development has the potential to inhibit healthy growth and development
in each stage to follow. According to Rosenthal et al, (1981), “Each stage arises because a new
dimension of social interaction becomes possible with increasing maturity” (p. 526). Based on
Rosenthal’s statement it is reasonable to conclude that comprehension of the symbiotic nature of
Erikson’s stage theory, as one stage moves on to the next, is crucial to those employed in the
mental health discipline’s ability to develop increased knowledge and understanding of the
process in which an individual’s psychosocial being evolves throughout their lifespan.
Rosenthal, et al. (1981) state that “focusing on only one stage…researchers fail to do
justice to Erikson’s theoretical formulation, which clearly implies that resolution of the
core conflict of earlier developmental stages can be influenced in part by crises
characteristic of a late developmental period” (p. 534). Good literature support.
Although the eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory are interrelated
and to some extent arguably dependent on one another, it is interesting to note that Erikson
himself regards the stage of adolescence as “central to his theory because when the individual
reaches this stage, the usefulness of identification as a mode of adjustment ends and identity
formation proper begins” (Erikson, 1968, as cited in Rosenthal, et al., 1981, p. 526).
Disruption in one’s ability to establish his/her identity during adolescence will inevitably
result in a weakened sense of self and disintegration of one’s personality. Under these
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circumstances an individual may suffer a disconnect from their authentic selves, perpetuating an
underlying question of ‘who am I?’. Stuart (2009) examines the inability to successfully
maneuver from one stage of psychosocial development to the next, as it relates to the prevalence
of mental illness, particularly personality disorders. According to Stuart (2009), individuals who
fail to complete separation from their mother (or primary guardian) during infancy and are
unable to develop autonomy in early childhood are likely to repeat this developmental crisis
during the stage of adolescence. Behaviors that are characteristic of such crises include
“clinging, depression accompanied by rage and defended by acting out, detachment and
withdrawal” (p. 374).
In considering the influence of mental disorder on identity formation, one author suggests
that “[o]ur identity is inherently social in that others are involved in its construction” (Author,
year, p. ___). Social identity (how individuals identify themselves within the social groups they
are included), is said to be carefully managed by way of ‘impression management’ in an attempt
to control some influence over how this identity is constructed (Gray 2002, p. 542, as cited in
“The Influence of Mental Disorder on Identity”, n.d., para. ___ ). People may be considered
deviant in the event they become unable or unwilling to “act in accordance with the rules of
impression management. Because social identity is directly related to how others perceive
somebody, deviance will have an impact on identity” (The Influence of Mental Disorders on
Identity, n.d., para. ___). This particular author argues that labeling and subsequently
institutionalizing an individual with mental illness and concluding the individual demonstrates
deviant behavior, is further detrimental to identity formation as previously established examples
of maladaptive development during the adolescent stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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development. Interesting. This brings up the idea of identifying as a “mentally ill” person. How
does the sick role effect one’s identity (perhaps another paper!).
In considering individuals living with chronic mental illness, Stuart (2009), explains that
“Although an effort has been made to decrease long-term institutionalization, many people
continue to resist integrating disabled people into their community. This involuntary isolation
may result in a variety of maladaptive social responses as the person tries to cope with
loneliness” (p. 376). This statement is relevant to the significance of Erikson’s stage theory in
mental health as it mirrors a point expressed earlier when considering possible outcomes in a
situation where the task of one (or more) stages is incomplete. Recall that, individuals lacking a
strong sense of self generally fail to develop healthy committed relationships and are therefore at
an increased risk for developing psychological disturbances such as emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression (Cherry, 2012).
Finally Rosenthal, et al. (1981) state that “focusing on only one stage…researchers fail to
do justice to Erikson’s theoretical formulation, which clearly implies that resolution of the core
conflict of earlier developmental stages can be influenced in part by crises characteristic of a late
developmental period” (p. 534).
In conclusion, Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development continues to produce
a profound effect on the discipline of psychology offering deep insight into the progression of
the human experience. Regardless of criticisms directed towards this developmental theory, it is
difficult to deny that it will ever be possible to truly offer therapeutic disease management to
those affected by diagnoses of mental illness if there is no concept of psychosocial development
to reference throughout the care process. Erikson’s stage theory may not be by all accounts
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
flawless, however it certainly serves as a valuable tool in beginning to understand the
complexities and progressive nature of psychiatric illness.
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References
Cherry, K. (2012). Erickson’s psychosocial stages summary chart. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/library/bl_psychosocial_summary.htm
Cherry, K. (2012). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm
Erik Erikson. (2012). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson
Myers, D. G. (2010). Psychology (9th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust to intimacy: A new
inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 10(6), 525-537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02087944
Stuart, G. W. (2009). Social responses and personality disorders. In Principles and practice of
psychiatric nursing (9th ed., pp. 369-387).
n.a. (n.d.). “The influence of mental disorder on identity”. The horizon of reason. Retrieved from
http://prevos.net/humanities/sociology/mentaldisorder/
0312 Introduction to Psychology
Essay Part II
MARK
MARK
ASSIGNED EARNED
COMMENTS
5
4.5
Minor formatting errors as marked.
10
10
Logical and coherent organization of ideas with
appropriate sentence and paragraph sequencing.
APA 5%
APA format for body of
paper, references with
consistent and complete
identification of sources
using APA 6th Edition.
Structure and
Scholarly
Presentation (15%)
Well structured paper,
logically & coherently
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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developed including a
rational progression of
ideas (e.g., via
consistency and
appropriateness of
headings, and intelligent
use of sentence and
paragraph sequencing
Length: 1000 words (+/10%)
Appropriateness of word
choice and language
including spelling,
punctuation and grammar
5
5
Excellent writing style, accurate spelling,
punctuation and grammar. Minor changes as noted.
Accuracy and depth of
analysis of the relevance
of nature or nurture to
mental illness and RPN
practice OR how
developmental theory
aids in understanding of
mental illness.
45
45
Effective and accurate discussion of Erikson’s
theory as it relates to our understanding of mental
illness. Focus on adolescence provided opportunity
to develop ideas with great depth. This was
balanced by statements re the importance of
viewing the stage in the greater context of the
developmental theory. Excellent.
Evidence of critical
thinking & reflection,
with ideas well
developed throughout
paper & well supported
by literature.
15
15
Evidence of critical thinking and reflection
throughout. Ideas were well-developed in
accordance to guidelines re length.
Overall level of insight,
originality, creativity,
and/or polish in dealing
with the subject
discussed.
15
15
Essay demonstrates a high level of insight into
subject matter, strong analytic skills, creativity and
polish.
Effective and appropriate
revision to thesis &
conclusion section
providing the reader with
summary statement
concluding points in part
I and II.
5
5
Effective and inclusive thesis and conclusion.
99.5
COMMENTS:
Content (80%)
TOTAL
Literature was used effectively to support claims. I
would encourage you to try to avoid using outdated
sources whenever possible.
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
25/25
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Trina,
Excellent work on part II! It fit seamlessly with
part I resulting in a well-balanced discussion and
analysis of Erikson’s developmental theory as it
relates to understanding mental illness. You have
strong writing abilities, analytical skills, and
present your ideas in a creative, clear and engaging
manner.
-Nicole Nicholas RPN, BA