Ivelisse Nunez
Midterm
Prof. Herminio Martínez
ESC 759: Foundations of Bilingual/Bicultural Education
Fall 2012
FIRST EXAMINATION
Instructions:
Answer the following questions clearly, concisely, analytically and factually.
I. Discuss the historical tradition of bilingualism in the U.S. (from the XVII Century to
the present). In your essay, pay particular attention to the four periods in the history
of bilingual education (permissive, restrictive, opportunity, and dismissive)
The historical traditions of bilingualism has gone through many changes and periods. The
permissive period include all the years before 1860s. When European immigrants came the
United States In The 18th and 19th century they settled in rural enclaves where they ran their own
schools, which where non-English-speaking schools. In 1839 Ohio becomes the first state to
assume a bilingual education law, which benefited the German community. A similar law was
implemented in Louisiana in 1849. In 1848 Mexico and the United States sign the Treaty of
Guadalupe-Hidalgo; this agreement gave Mexicans the right to speak Spanish in the United
States marking the end of the permissive period.
The Restrictive Period began in the year 1860 and ended in 1957. In 1864 Congress forbids the
Native Americans for being taught in their own languages. In the decade of 1870’s, A St. Louis
school superintendent by the name of William Harris who later became the United States
Commissioner of Education stated that “national memories and aspirations, family traditions,
customs and habits, moral and religious observances cannot be suddenly removed or changed
without disastrously weakening the personality.” Harris established the first kindergarten in
America which was monolingual in German.
The opportunity period began in 1957 and ended in the year 1980. In the year 1974, 1,800
students suit the San Francisco school District for offering English only instruction in a school
where most students spoke only Chinese. The Supreme Court rules in Lau v. Nichols that
schools without special provisions to education language-minority students are not providing
equal education and violate the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The federal government publishes new
materials in nearly seventy languages and allocates sixty-eight million dollars for bilingual
education. 1975 The National Association for bilingual Education is founded.
The last period in the history of bilingual education is the Dismissive Period from 1980 to the
present. In 1980s The population of foreign-born residents increases by 40 percent, the
population of speakers of minority languages grows by 38 percent, and 37 percent of United
States residents report some difficulty with English. 1980 The Mariel boatlift brings younger and
poorer Cubans to Dade County, Florida. Dade voters pass the anti-bilingual ordinance
prohibiting any voluntary expenditure “for the purpose of utilizing any language other than
English, or promoting any culture other than that of the U.S.” The measure is repealed in 1993
but the harsh language of the ordinance exposes growing anti-immigrant sentiment. 1994
California passes Proposition 187, making it illegal for children of undocumented immigrants to
attend public schools. The federal courts rule that Proposition 187 is unconstitutional. 1998
California voters overwhelmingly (61 to 39) approve Proposition 227, an initiative that
eliminates the state’s bilingual education programs and requires that all instruction be conducted
in English. 2000 Arizona passes its version of English-only Laws, Proposition 203.
II. Discuss the optimal conditions for Second Language Acquisition. (Cite the
“Magic 7” components.)
In order for second language acquisition to happen the student must be learning in a “Low
anxiety environment” that is accepting and where the student feels confortable to speak.
“Comprehensible Input” is also very important, Krashen, 1982, states that A second language is
not acquired by direct instruction in the rules of the language, by using the language in
meaningful contexts. Krashen also added that students will acquire a second language only if
they receive comprehensible input in it. Talk becomes comprehensible input to students through
context and reference to background knowledge (Krashen, 1985) or context-embedded and
cognitively undemanding experiences. Cummins claims that talk is not enough; to succeed in
school, ELL students need more than conversational fluency; they need to develop the cognitive
and academic skills required for learning academic subject matter. Another condition for second
language acquisition is “Communication Focus”. ESL instruction should focus on oral and
written communication. “Contextualize language” and focus on pronunciation, grammar and
vocabulary. “Error acceptance” is an important step for a child to go from BICS to CALP. Both
Ells and ESL instructors must have “Respect for Language Acquisition Stages” in order to reach
the proficiency needed to function in decontextualized, academic settings. Finally, “Teacher as
Facilitator” to provide testing, assignment, assessments and feedback.
III. Discuss the four stages of language acquisition:
Preproduction:
This stage is characterized by Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). In this stage,
students are not speaking the new language: the child relies on physical responses only, there is
no speech production and the comprehension minimal. The responses are limited to one or twoword. Students are dependent upon modeling, visual signs and context clues to obtain and
convey meaning. The focus is comprehension as students develop listening strategies which will
later form the basis for production. Students communicate with gestures and actions. This period
last from 2 weeks to 2 months.
Early Production:
This stage is also characterized by Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). After an
initial listening phase, students begin to produce words that they have heard often. The student
verbalizes words in isolation. Students begin to answer yes or no to specific questions. They may
also answer in one-word responses that utilize a familiar vocabulary word. Activities are
designed to produce vocabulary which they already understand. This period last 2 to 4 months.
Speech Emergence:
. This is the simple sentence stage. The Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are
still in development. Students have now acquired a limited vocabulary and respond in short
sentences, and later in longer sentences. The student produces whole sentences but makes basic
grammatical errors. The students at this state functions on a social level; they are able to respond
to literal questions and questions which are made comprehensible. This stage last anywhere from
1 to four years.
Intermediate Fluency:
CALF proficiency begins at this stage. Students begin to emerge in conversations and produce
full sentences and connected narratives. Students are challenged to produce responses that
acquire creativity, critical thinking skills, and complete sentence structures. More advanced
reading and writing activities are incorporated into lessons. The student challenges cognitive
processes, asks why questions soliciting opinion, judgment, prediction, hypothesis, and
inference. This period can last anywhere from 3 to 5 years.