Advanced Placement
Environmental
Science
Harvard-Westlake School
2010-2011
Text: Working With the Earth, G. Tyler Miller Jr., 11th edition
Course # 5025
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Unit: Matter, Energy, and Ecosystems
Reading:
Chapter 1
Section 1-1 through 1-6
Chapter 2 Text
Section 2-1 through 2-4
Chapter 3 Text
Section 3-1 through 3-6
Chapter 18
Section 18-1 through 18-2
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Seed Germination and Population Dynamics Lab
Seed Germination and Range of Tolerance Lab
Nutrient Cycling Lab
Worksheet:
Decomposition of Oak Leaves Worksheet
Simple Math for ‘Geniuses’ #1 (Unit Fraction Method)
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Matter, Energy, and Ecosystems Review Sheet
Matter
 Forms and Quality
 Law of Conservation
 Matter Cycling
 Organic vs. Inorganic
Energy
 Forms and Quality
 Law of Conservation
 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
 Energy Flow
Ecosystems
 Nutrient Cycles (Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Hydrologic)
 Producers vs. Consumers
 Photoautotrophs vs. Chemoautotrophs
 Organism, Species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Ecosphere
 Three Types of Biodiversity
 Ecological Pyramids
 Trophic Levels
 Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Scavengers, Detritivores, Decomposers
 Food Chains and Webs (Energy Flow and Efficiency)
 Limiting Factor (what are some)
 Range of Tolerance
 Specialist vs. Generalist
 Habitat vs. Niche
 Gross vs. Net Primary Productivity
 Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
 Relative productivities of different ecosystems
Environmental Economics
 Full cost pricing
 Point of diminishing returns
 Natural capital
 External vs. Internal costs
 Subsidies and Tax Breaks
 Affluenza
 Supply and Demand
 GDP/GNP vs. GPI/ISW
 Per capita
 I = PAT (developed vs. developing countries)
Labs and Homework
 Lessons from Seed Germination/Range of Tolerance Lab
 Lessons from Nutrient Cycling Lab
 Scientific Method
 Experimental Design
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Seed Germination and Population Dynamics Lab
Background:
One of the most important issues in both ecology and environmental
science is that of overpopulation and overcrowding. Charles Darwin spoke
frankly about the tendency for all species to overpopulate the carrying capacity
of their environment. Competition, he stated, leads to the survival of those
individuals best adapted to their environment. This lab explores the manner by
which plant germination responds to over-crowding. Some of the variables have
been defined for you, but you need to determine how many seeds to put in each
iteration of the test in order to make conclusions about over-crowding.
Materials:
Mung bean seeds
Filter paper
Flasks/beakers
Petri dishes (6)
Water
Graduated cylinders
Pens and labels
Procedure:
1. Wash 6 petri dishes (We reuse them every year. Make sure they are clean.)
2. Line each dish with filter paper.
3. Put 10 ml of water in each dish.
4. Decide how many beans you want to put in each petri dish such that
you will be able to make some conclusions about overcrowding. Think
about the size constraints of the dish, the amount of water you have
added, and being able to ‘cover the most possible scenarios’. Make sure to
remove any obviously broken/damaged beans.
5. Cover the dishes, and place a label with your Group number and number
of seeds on each covered dish. (They germinate rapidly.)
6. Make careful observations of your seeds ON A DAILY BASIS!! (Yes, this
means at least one of you needs to come in during any X-period to record
data.)
7. Seeds need both water and oxygen to grow. You must keep your seeds
moist!
8. Formulate a hypothesis in the “if, …then” format stating what % of the
seeds you expect to see germinate on day 1, 2, and 3 for your observations.
Write down your group’s hypothesis below.
HYPOTHESIS
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Results:
Number of
Mung Beans
Germinated
Petri
with
? seeds
Petri
with
? seeds
Petri
with
? seeds
Petri
with
? seeds
Petri
with
? seeds
Petri
with
? seeds
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Note: If your beans grow really fast, you may see some with short and long
stems as well as leaves. Depending on the results we may choose to produce
another table for information beyond just germination.
Report:
1) All experiments have dependent and independent variables and some
variables are regarded as constant. Look back at the Procedure and
indentify all of the variables. Which of these are independent and
dependant?
2) Using Excel or a piece of graph paper produce a scatter plot with days on
the x-axis (independent variable), and numbers of seeds germinated on
the y-axis (dependent variable).
3) Look up the definition for carrying capacity in your textbook. We will
cover the subject in detail later in the quarter.
4) Write a paragraph in the space below and summarize you experiment
results. Include a discussion of the shapes of the graphs you produced for
the seed germination results, and tie this information to the concept of
carrying capacity. Think about how various types of errors (at least 2) can
affect testing your hypothesis.
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Seed Germination and the Range of Tolerance
You are a member of a team of scientists in a biology laboratory. You have been
investigating the effects of several factors on radish seed germination (i.e., sprouting).
Recently, someone on the team discovered a potential problem with some of the
experiments. She found that the water that you have been using on the seeds was
sometimes varied in acidity. Do these changes in the acidity of the water affect the
germination of radish seeds, and if they do, what would be the optimum pH for radish
seed germination?
Your job is to find the optimal pH of the water to germinate seeds. You will need to
design and conduct an experiment which will evaluate the problem. You will need to
report your results to the other members of your team, and you will also need to give
them advice about the problem.
Germination of seeds: Seeds need both moisture and air for germination. They do not
need light. It is best to place seeds between moistened paper towels, but it is important
that they are not drowned in the water.
The first two parts will be done for homework in preparation for the lab.
Part 1:
Problem Definition: State the problem that you are going to investigate.
(cont’d next pg.)
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Part 2:
Experimental Design: Describe the experiment you will conduct to investigate the
problem. Identify the hypothesis or prediction that your experiment will be testing. List
all of the steps that you will do. Your list should provide enough details so that someone
else could accurately repeat your experiment.
Once your design has been checked by your instructor set up and conduct your
experiment. You will have one week to complete your experiment. The following
will be done on your own.
Results: Once you have finished the experiment, describe the results of your experiment.
Compare the results of your experiment with what you expected to happen. Graph your
data and interpret the graph. Did the experiment turn out as you hypothesized or
predicted it would? Explain why or why not.
Conclusions: Based upon the results of your experiment, what do you conclude about the
effects of pH on seed germination? What sources of error were present in your lab
design? Make recommendations for a revised experiment on seed germination.
USE THE NEXT PAGE FOR YOUR RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS.
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Ecological Impacts of Rice Farming: Nutrient Cycles
Introduction
Materials such as water, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and other nutrients tend
to cycle within the boundaries of a given ecosystem. These essential elements are taken
up, assimilated, and stored by living organisms and are returned to the system as
metabolic wastes or when organisms decompose. Decomposers and detritus feeders play
a crucial role in releasing materials as forms that can once again be taken up by
autotrophs.
Modern agriculture is a disturbance that has had a profound effect on these
nutrient cycles. Significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and many other
minerals (i.e., calcium, magnesium, iron) are removed from the soil by crops; these crops
are harvested and shipped to markets. This output of nutrients is substantial and must be
replaced by the input of fertilizers or other agricultural methods. Thus, our agricultural
systems are open systems, with inputs and outputs beyond the boundaries of the system
(in this case, an agricultural field or rice paddy).
Purpose: The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to demonstrate and quantify nutrient
loss in the production and export of paddy rice.
Materials Needed:
dried rice
crucible tongs
safety goggles
crucible
Bunsen burner
balance
ring stand
clay triangle
Procedure:
1. Determine the mass of a clean crucible. Record this in the data table.
2. Add approximately 1 teaspoon of dry rice to the crucible and weigh the crucible and
rice together. Calculate and record the initial mass of the rice sample.
3. Place the crucible and dried rice sample into a triangle set up on a ring stand. Place a
Bunsen burner beneath the crucible. Carefully adjust the ring so that the bottom of the
crucible is in the inner cone of the Bunsen burner flame. Incinerate the sample until only
ash remains in the crucible. Wear your safety goggles while your sample is being
incinerated!!!
4. CAUTION: the crucible will be hot! Remove the crucible from the flame and allow it
to cool. Weigh the ash sample and record its mass in the data table.
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5. Calculate the percent ash (from dry mass) in your sample.
Mass of
Crucible
Mass crucible +
rice (g)
Mass rice
(g)
Mass crucible +
ash (g)
Mass ash (g)
% Ash
(%nutrients)
Questions and Analysis:
1. a. The remaining ash looks like carbon (but it isn’t!) because we assume that carbon is
black. If you look closely, you will see that the ash has a metallic appearance. Why?
What happened to the carbon?
b. What gases were produced during incineration?
c. How are the processes of incineration and cellular respiration similar?
2. What are the major components of the ash that remains? Read the ingredients on the
rice bag.
3. In California, every acre (about the area of a football field) yields 150 lbs of rice each
year. How much fertilizer must farmers add to each acre of rice field per
year?___________ show calculations.
4. Compare the effect of harvesting and exporting rice on soil fertility to the processes
affecting soil fertility in a natural ecosystem.
5. As a side note: Rice paddies produce methane gas. How do they produce
methane and what is the effect of methane gas upon the atmosphere? Look it up!
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Decomposition of Oak Leaves
The decomposition of organic matter is an important process in the soil ecosystem. It
supplies energy to soil heterotrophs and forms a necessary link in the recycling of
nutrients.
Decomposition takes a long time. It would not be feasible to station an observer beside
a fallen leaf and tell the observer to record all the changes in that leaf over the next 12
months! In the first place, the observer could see only what happened while the leaf was
above ground. In addition, the observer would be unable to see the microscopic changes.
Besides, who would want such a job? Here is a more practical method for studying leaf
decomposition.
Leaves from the red oak, Quercus rubra, were collected and placed in bags made of
nylon mesh, 20 leaves to a bag. Three bags were used, each having a different mesh size.
Each bag was tied shut, labeled, and placed on a scale to find its mass. Then each bag
was buried at a depth of 10 centimeters in a flower garden on June 1. At 1-month
intervals until frost came in November, the bags were dug up and placed on a scale to
find their mass. They were then returned to the ground. When the ground had thawed in
April, the routine was resumed. The results appear in the following graph.
The Effect of Litter Size on Decomposition
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Mass of Litter Remaining (gm)
40
35
30
10 mm Mesh
25
1 mm Mesh
20
0.005mm Mesh
15
10
5
0
Month
1. Why does the mass of the leaves in all three bags change little between
November and April?
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2. a) In general, what kinds of soil organisms can go through a 10-mm nylon
mesh as compared to 1-mm mesh? A 0.005-mm mesh? (Check you text for
reference)
b) What would have been a plausible hypothesis for this experiment?
(Use the “If… Then…” format)
3. Using the information given, formulate a theory about the relative importance
of various groups of soil organisms in the process of leaf decomposition.
4. In an average soil, more than three fourths of the energy flow is through
microorganisms, which would be the only organisms to fit through the 0.005 mm
mesh. Why then, did the least decomposition occur in the 0.005 mesh bag where
there are nothing but microorganisms present? Be thorough with your answer!
5. A particularly long-lived insecticide was sprayed on a deciduous forest. The
insecticide adhered to the tree leaves and also percolated into the soil. What effect
would this have on decomposition in the soil? Explain.
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Unit: Ecological Concepts
Reading:
Chapter 4 Text
Section 4-1 through 4-4 (this should be review)
Chapter 5 Text
Section 5-1 through 5-7
Chapter 6 Text
Section 6-1 through 6-6
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Biome Diorama
Measuring Cricket Population Capture-Recapture Lab
Biome PowerPoint Presentation
Worksheets:
Top of the Food Chain Worksheet
Capture-Recapture Worksheet
Marine Food Chain Worksheet
Simple Math for ‘Geniuses’
Making a Climatogram
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Ecological Concepts Review Sheet
Evolution
 Habitat vs. Niche
 Specialist vs. Generalist
 Evolution, Natural Selection, Variation, Mutation
 Stabilizing vs. Directional vs. Disruptive/Diversifying Selection
 Speciation (Geographic vs. Reproductive Isolation)
 Adaptive Radiation, Mass Extinction, Mass Depletion
Climate and Biomes
 Weather vs. Climate
 El Niño vs. La Niña vs. Normal Conditions
 Seasons
 Rainshadow Effect
 Global Convection Currents
 Biomes (precipitation, temperature, sunlight patterns, latitude and altitude, and important
necessary adaptations)
o
Arctic Tundra, Tiaga (Boreal), Temperate Forests, Grasslands, Chaparral, Desert,
Tropical Rainforest
Aquatic Systems
 Productivity of Coastal Zone vs. Open Ocean vs. Estuaries
 Ecological and Economic Services of Marine and Freshwater Systems
 Aquaculture (Pros and Cons)
 Euphotic vs Bathyal vs. Abyssal zones of Oceans
 Littoral vs. Limnetic vs. Profundal zones of Lakes
 Oligotrophic vs. Eutrophic Lakes
 Summer vs. Winter Stratification of Lakes (Thermocline)
Population Dynamics
 Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influencing Population Size and Growth Rate
 Biotic Potential, Carrying Capacity
 Exponential vs. Logistic Growth
 Density-Dependent vs. Density-Independent Population Controls
 Predator-Prey Population Cycles
 r-selected vs. K-selected species (Opportunists vs. Competitors)
 Three Types of Survivorship Curves
Species Interactions
 Native vs. Non-Native vs. Indicator vs. Keystone Species
 Intraspecific vs. Interspecific Competition
 Competitive Exclusion Principle
 Resource Partitioning
 Character Displacement
 Fundamental vs. Realized Niches
 Predation
 Prey Adaptations
 Parasitism vs. Mutualism vs. Commensalism
 Ecosystem Succession (primary vs. secondary)
Lessons From The Great Bear Temperate Rainforest Movie
Lessons from Biome Presentations
Lessons from Cricket Lab
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Measuring Cricket Populations
Capture-Recapture Lab
In this lab, we will be using a common technique to estimate the population of
crickets in a controlled environment. The controlled environment is the terrarium
holding the numerous insects and the technique we will use is known as the capturerecapture method. You will work in groups of 3 students for this exercise and at least one
of you will need to be comfortable catching and holding a cricket without hurting or
maiming it. The second group member will be responsible for carefully marking the
thorax of the cricket with a paint pen (this takes a steady hand). Member #3 is the data
logger and will record the group information as well as offer emotional support when
needed.
The method we are using to estimate the population size requires that we make a
few assumptions. They are:
1. The population is ‘closed’- no migration, births, or deaths occur during the
experiment.
2. The marks or tags are not lost or overlooked by observers.
3. All animals are equally likely to be caught during both capture sessions. In other
words, the marks don’t hurt, kill, or prevent the animals from acting normally.
Using these assumptions, we will use a mathematical model (known as the LincolnPeterson model) to calculate the population size. There are only three numbers we need
in order to use this model and they are fairly easy to collect. The first number we get by
capturing a sample of the overall population of the animals we want to study. That is
denoted with ‘n1’. Each of these animals is marked or tagged so that it can be identified
at a later time if re-captured. At a later time, we will capture another sample of the same
general population and count the number of animals caught. This time however, we will
note how many of the re-captured animals carry the marks or tags from the first capture
and how many animals were re-captured in total. These numbers are ‘m2’ and ‘n2’
respectively.
In Summary:
 n1 = # animals marked and released during the first capture.
 n2 = # of animals captured during the second capture (total)
 m2 = # of animals captured during second capture that bear marks from
the first session.
 N = the estimate of total population size
By comparing the proportions of these marked and unmarked animals, we can
estimate the population size using the following equation:
n1 m2

N n2
Simplifying the equation we get:
n *n
N 1 2
m2
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With these assumptions, we will attempt to measure the population size in the terrarium
using the following methods:
1. Carefully remove a Tupperware container and seal it without losing any
crickets.
2. Take the Tupperware to your desk and mark ALL of the crickets in the
Tupperware.
a. To do this, have one group member carefully catch and hold one
cricket at a time while the second group member places a paint dot on
the thorax of the cricket. Your group will be using ________ color
paint.
b. Place the marked cricket in the second Tupperware container.
c. Repeat
3. When ALL of the crickets have been marked, return the marked crickets in
your Tupperware to the terrarium.
4. At this point we will have a brief discussion while the marked crickets
intermingle with their unmarked friends and neighbors.
5. After the discussion, you will go back to the terrarium and remove a collection
of crickets in your Tupperware container. At this point, there should be some
marked and some unmarked crickets in your Tupperware.
6. Take the Tupperware back to your table and count how many crickets you
have without any marks, with your color marks, and any other colored marks.
Record this information in your data sheet.
7. NOTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN m2 and M2.
n1
n2
m2
M2
(your group
(any color)
N
n1 * n2
m2
N
n1 * n2 (total )
M2
color)
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Group 5
Group 6
Group 7
TOTALS
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Analysis:
1. Notice that you can calculate the population estimate using either your group’s
data alone or using the class’ data as a whole. Which value should you use for the
number of marked animals in each calculation and why? M or m?
2. Explain why one of the estimates is more reliable than the other.
3. Explain what would happen to your estimate if several of the animals died or
migrated out of the area between captures?
4. Explain what would happen to your estimate if the marks or tags fell off the
animals before they were recaptured?
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TOP OF THE FOOD CHAIN
T.C. Boyle, in Without a Hero and Other Stories
NOTE: as you read this, circle, underline, or highlight all of the organisms mentioned.
The thing was, we had a little problem with the insect vector there, and believe me,
your tamer stuff, your Malathion and pyrethrum and the rest of the so-called
environmentally safe products didn't begin to make a dent in it, not a dent, I mean it was
utterly useless-we might as well have been spraying with Chanel Number 5 for all the
good it did. And you've got to realize these people were literally covered with insects day
and night-and the fact that they hardly wore any clothes just compounded the problem.
Picture if you can, gentlemen, a naked little two-year-old boy so black with flies and
mosquitoes it looks like he's wearing long johns, or the young mother so racked with the
malarial shakes she can't even lift a diet Coke to her lips-it was pathetic, just pathetic, like
something out of the Dark Ages.... Well, anyway, the decision was made to go with DDT
in the short term, just to get the situation under control, you understand.
Yes, that's right, Senator, DDT. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.
Yes, I'm well aware of that fact, sir. But just because we banned it domestically, under
pressure from the bird watching contingent and the hopheads down at the EPA, it doesn't
necessarily follow that the rest of the world-especially the developing world-is about to
jump on the bandwagon. And that's the key word here, Senator: developing. You've got
to realize this is Borneo we're talking about here, not Port Townsend. These people don't
know from square one about sanitation, disease control, pest eradication -or even
personal hygiene, if you want to come right down to it.
It rains a hundred and twenty inches a year, minimum. They dig up roots in the jungle.
They've still got headhunters along the Rajang River, for god's sake.
And please don't forget they asked us to come in there, practically begged us-and not
only the World Health Organization, but the Sultan of Brunei and the government in
Sarawak too. We did what we could to accommodate them and reach our objective in the
shortest period of time and by the most direct and effective means. We went to the air.
Obviously. And no one could have foreseen the consequences, no one, not even if we'd
gone out and generated a hundred environmental-impact statements-it was just one of
those things, a freak occurrence, and there's no defense against that. Not that I know of,
anyway....
Caterpillars? Yes, Senator, that's correct. That was the first sign: caterpillars.
But let me backtrack a minute here. You see, out in the bush they have these roofs
made of thatched palm leaves-you'll see them in the towns too, even in Bintulu or Bruneiand they're really pretty effective, you'd be surprised. A hundred and twenty inches of
rain, they've got to figure a way to keep it out of the hut, and for centuries, this was it.
Palm leaves. Well, it was about a month after we sprayed for the final time and I'm sitting
at my desk in the trailer thinking about the drainage project at Kuching, enjoying the fact
that for the first time in maybe a year I'm not smearing mosquitoes all over the back of
my neck, when there's a knock at the door. It's this elderly gentleman, tattooed from head
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to toe, dressed only in a pair of running shorts-they love those shorts, by the way, the
shiny material and the tight machine-stitching, the whole country, men and women and
children, they can't get enough of them.... Any- way, he's the headman of the local village
and he's very excited, something about the roofs-atap, they call them. That's all he can
say, atap, atap, over and over again.
It's raining, of course. It's always raining. So I shrug into my rain slicker, start up the
4X4 and go have a look. Sure enough, all the atap roofs are collapsing, not only in his
village, but throughout the target area. The people are all huddled there in their running
shorts, looking pretty miserable, and one after another the roofs keep falling in, it's
bewildering, and gradually I realize the headman's diatribe has begun to feature a new
term I was unfamiliar with at the time-the word for caterpillar, as it turns out, in the Than
dialect. But who was to make the connection between three passes with the crop duster
and all these staved-in roofs?
Our people finally sorted it out a couple weeks later. The chemical, which, by the way,
cut down the number of mosquitoes exponentially, had the unfortunate side effect of
killing off this little wasp-I've got the scientific name for it somewhere in my report here,
if you're interested-that preyed on a type of caterpillar that in turn ate palm leaves. Well,
with the wasps gone, the caterpillars hatched out with nothing to keep them in check and
chewed the roofs to pieces, and that was unfortunate, we admit it, and we had a real cost
overrun on replacing those roofs with tin . . . but the people were happier, I think, in the
long run, because let's face it, no matter how tightly you weave those palm leaves, they're
just not going to keep the water out like tin. Of course, nothing's perfect, and we had a lot
of complaints about the rain drumming on the panels, people unable to sleep and whathave-you....
Yes, sir, that's correct-the flies were next. Well, you've got to understand the
magnitude of the fly problem in Borneo, there's nothing like it here to compare it with,
except maybe a garbage strike in New York. Every minute of every day you've got flies
everywhere, up your nose, in your mouth, your ears, your eyes, flies in your rice, your
Coke, your Singapore sling and your gin rickey. It's enough to drive you to distraction,
not to mention the diseases these things carry, from dysentery to typhoid to cholera and
back round the loop again. And once the mosquito population was down, the flies seemed
to breed up to fill in the gap-Borneo wouldn't be Borneo without some damned insect
blackening the air.
Of course, this was before our people had tracked down the problem with the
caterpillars and the wasps and all of that, and so we figured we'd had a big success with
the mosquitoes, why not a series of ground sweeps, mount a fogger in the back of a
Suzuki Brat and sanitize the huts, not to mention the open sewers, which as you know are
nothing but a breeding ground for flies, chiggers and biting insects of every sort. At least
it was an error of commission rather than omission. At least we were trying.
I watched the flies go down myself. One day they were so thick in the trailer I couldn't
even find my paperwork, let alone attempt to get through it, and the next they were
collecting on the windows, bumbling around like they were drunk. A day later they were
gone. Just like that. From a million flies in the trailer to none....
Well, no one could have foreseen that, Senator. The geckos ate the flies, yes. You're all
familiar with geckos, I assume, gentlemen? These are the lizards you've seen during your
trips to Hawaii, very colorful, patrolling the houses for roaches and flies, almost like pets,
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but of course they're wild animals, never lose sight of that, and just about as unsanitary as
anything I can think of, except maybe flies.
Yes, well don't forget, sir, we're viewing this with twenty-twenty hindsight, but at the
time no one gave a thought to geckos or what they ate-they were just another fact of life
in the tropics. Mosquitoes, lizards, scorpions, leeches-you name it, they've got it. When
the flies began piling up on the windowsills like drift, naturally the geckos feasted on
them, stuffing themselves till they looked like sausages crawling up the walls. Where
before they moved so fast you could never be sure you'd seen them, now they waddled
across the floor, laid around in the corners, clung to the air vents like magnets-and even
then no one paid much attention to them till they started turning belly-up in the streets.
Believe me, we confirmed a lot of things there about the buildup of these products as you
move up the food chain and the efficacy-or lack thereof-of certain methods, no doubt
about that....
The cats? That's where it got sticky, really sticky. You see, nobody really lost any sleep
over a pile of dead lizards-though we did the tests routinely and the tests confirmed what
we'd expected, that is, the product had been concentrated in the geckos because of the
sheer number of contaminated flies they consumed. But lizards are one thing and cats are
another. These people really have an affection for their cats-no house, no hut, no matter
how primitive, is without at least a couple of them. Mangy-looking things, long-legged
and scrawny, maybe, not at all the sort of animal you'd see here, but there it was: they
loved their cats. Because the cats were functional, you understand-without them, the
place would have been swimming in rodents inside of a week.
You're right there, Senator, yes-that's exactly what happened. You see, the cats had a
field day with these feeble geckos-you can imagine, if any of you have ever owned a cat,
the land of joy these animals must have experienced to see their nemesis, this ultra- quick
lizard, and it's just barely creeping across the floor like a bug. Well, to make a long story
short, the cats ate up every dead and dying geckos in the country, from snout to tail, and
then the cats began to die ... which to my mind would have been no great loss if it wasn't
for the rats. Suddenly there were rats everywhere-you couldn't drive down the street
without running over half-a-dozen of them at a time. They fouled the grain supplies, fell
in the wells and died, bit infants as they slept in their cradles. But that wasn't the worst,
not by a long shot. No, things really went down the tube after that. Within the month we
were getting scattered reports of bubonic plague, and of course we tracked them all down
and made sure the people got a round of treatment with antibiotics, but still we lost a few
and the rats kept coming....
It was my plan, yes. I was brainstorming one night, rats scuttling all over the trailer
like something out of a cheap horror film, the villagers in a panic over the threat of the
plague and the stream of nonstop hysterical reports from the interior-people were turning
black, swelling up and bursting, that sort of thing-well, as I say, I came up with a plan, a
stopgap, not perfect, not cheap; but at this juncture, I'm sure your agree, something had to
be implemented. We wound up going as far as Australia for some of the cats, cleaning
out the SPCA facilities and what-have-you, though we rounded most of them up in
Indonesia and Singapore-approximately fourteen thousand in all. And yes, it cost us-cost
us upfront purchase money and aircraft fuel and pilots' overtime and all the rest of itbut we really felt there was no alternative. It was like all nature had turned against us.
22
And yet still, all things considered, we made a lot of friends for the U.S.A. the day we
dropped those cats, and you should have seen them, gentlemen, the little parachutes and
harnesses we'd tricked up, fourteen thousand of them, cats in every color of the rainbow,
cats with one ear, no ears, half a tail, three-legged cats, cats that could have taken pride of
show in Springfield, Massachusetts, and all of them twirling down out of the sky like
great big oversized snowflakes....
It was something. It was really something. Of course, you've all seen the reports. There
were other factors we hadn't counted on, adverse conditions in the paddies and manioc
fields-we don't to this day know what predatory species were inadvertently killed off by
the initial sprayings, it's just a mystery-but the weevils and whatnot took a pretty heavy
toll on the crops that year, and by the time we dropped the cats, well, the people were
pretty hungry, and I suppose it was inevitable that we lost a good proportion of them right
then and there. But we've got a CARE program going there now, and something hit the
rat population- we still don't know what, a virus, we think-and the geckos, they tell me,
are making a comeback.
So what I'm saying is, it could be worse, and to every cloud a silver lining, wouldn't
you agree, gentlemen?
Assignment: Make a food web of all the organisms affected by the spraying of
DDT in Borneo.
23
Capture / Recapture Worksheet
1. Gypsy moth populations soar every few years in the Northeastern deciduous forests,
causing great damage to the trees their larvae eat. In order to determine the population of
gypsy moths in a forest, 200 were trapped, marked, and released. The next night, more
moths were collected. Of the 150 that were collected, 15 were already marked. What is
the size of the population of gypsy moths in the forest?
(Hint: Use a simple ratio, you shouldn’t need a calculator for this example.)
200 marked
Total populations
=
15 recaptured & marked
150 recaptured
2. In order to determine snail populations, 340 snails were captured, tagged, and released.
Later, 420 snails were captured. Of the 420 snails, 16 were already marked. What is the
size of the snail population?
3. 150 marlin were captured, tagged, and returned to the deep ocean, where they live.
Later, when 140 marlin were captured, 7 of the marlin had tags. What is the size of the
marlin population?
4. Describe one factor for each of the examples above that might interfere with the
accuracy of the population estimates. (that’s three factors)
24
25
Biome Oral Presentation
1. Your primary goal is to present your biome in such a way that your classmates will
have a clear picture in their mind of the climate, the typical organisms, and location of
your biome.
 Biome options:
o Desert, Tundra, Tiaga, Temperate Deciduous Forest, Grassland,
Chaparral, Tropical Rainforest
2. Determine the general characteristics of the biome
- general climate (temperature, precipitation)
- general latitude
- typical flora, fauna, and soil characteristics
- limiting factors
Some helpful websites:
http://www.thewildclassroom.com/biomes/tropicalsavanna.html
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/interactive_climate_map/climate_map.html
http://www.fs.fed.us/land/ecosysmgmt/colorimagemap/ecoreg1_provinces.html
http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/intro.html
NOTE: Some of the biomes have different names/spellings than we are used to
using. Choose "Broadleaf Forest" for Deciduous Forest, "Hawaiian Province" for
Tropical Rainforest, "Taiga" for Coniferous Forest, "Subtropical Prairie" for Savanna or
"Temperate Prairie" for Grasslands.
3. Create or find a map that illustrates the worldwide distribution of your biome.
- use a bright color to identify your biome
- label the equator and the tropics
4. Find the common and/or scientific names of the main plants in your biome. Be
specific as to type. It is NOT enough to simply write "tree" or even "pine tree." You must
find specific names, such as "pinon pine tree."
5. Find the common and/or scientific names of the common animals in your biome. In
that list, you must include the most abundant types of organisms.
6. Describe specific adaptations that are unique to your biome. Why is it unique?
7. Create a food web that represents your specific biome. Identify the trophic levels and
relative abundance of the organisms.
8. Create a climatogram for your chosen city. This is a graph of the average monthly
rainfall and temperatures with rainfall as a bar graph and temperature as a line graph.
- you can use this website to help you find the data you need
http://www.worldclimate.com/
9. Create an oral presentation that relays the above information to the class.
10. Make sure that you have a visual component for the above items and explain it.
26
Biome Oral Report Rubric
Name:____________________
Biome:_____________________
Oral Presentation Rubric
Possible
Points
Provided sufficient coverage of topic. All
necessary information was presented
30
Presentation was well planned and
coherent.
10
Visual aids were clear and useful.
10
Voice projection and eye contact were at
effective levels.
10
Total Possible Points
60
Teacher
Assessment
27
Making a Climatogram using Microsoft Excel
1. Enter the appropriate data:
Enter the Months on the first row.
Enter the precipitation values (in cm) on the second row accordingly. (no units)
Enter the temperature value (in Celsius) on the third row accordingly. (no units)
Months
January February March April
May
June
July
August September October November December
precip. (cm)
Temp. (deg. C)
2. Select the precip. and Temp. cells with the numbers in them.
3. Click on the Insert tab at the top of the window.
4. Choose the “Column Button” and select 2D.
5. RIGHT Click on a Temp. data point on your graph. Choose ‘Change Series Chart
Type’.
6. Select ‘Line’.
7. RIGHT click on a Temp. data point again. Choose ‘Format Data Series’. Select ‘plot
series on Secondary Axis’.
8. RIGHT click on a blank area of the chart and choose ‘Select Data Source’.
9. Click on Series 1 and then ‘Edit’. Give it the appropriate name (precip. or temp.).
Repeat the process for Series 2.
10. In order to label the X-axis with the months, click on the Edit button un der
Horizontal (Category) Axis Labels. The window will shrink. Now you can select the
month right off of your data sheet by highlighting them. Click ‘OK’ and the window will
return.
11. Now we want to standardize the Vertical Axes. RIGHT click on the axes and set the
parameters as follows:
- Temp Max 30C ----- Min -30C
- Precip Max 35cm ---- Min 0cm
12. Give your chart a title by double clicking on the chart in a blank area. Then, at the
top of the window, click the ‘Layout’ tab. Then you can select ‘Chart Title’ Above chart
and Type in an appropriate Title.
Answer the questions on the next page….
28
Name__________________________ class____
Climatogram part 2
Look at the climatograms available on the AP Environmental Science Website and
answer the following questions
1. Which biome has the lowest temperatures throughout the year?
2. Which biome illustrates a distinct dry season and wet season and therefore has plants
adapted to survive (and in fact, thrive) with periodic fires?
3. Which two biomes have the least rainfall?
4. Grasslands, deserts and deciduous forests can be found at similar latitudes. What
abiotic factor is most responsible for the differences among the biomes?
5. What abiotic factor(s) other than temperature and precipitation goes into determining
what a biome will be like?
6. Which biome has the least variation in temperature?
7. Which biome has the most consistently high rainfall?
29
Unit: Human Population
Reading:
Chapter 7 Text
Section 7-1 through 7-5 and 7-7 through 7-8
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Human Population Growth Computer Lab
Population Pyramid Internet Exercise
Tragedy of the Commons Activity
Worksheets:
Population Calculation Worksheet
Simple Math for ‘Geniuses’ Worksheet
A Non-Bearing Account, Noel Perrin
The Frontier Ethic, Daniel Chiras
30
Human Population Review Sheet
Population Statistics
 Crude birth rate
 Crude death rate
 Natural rate of increase/growth
 Replacement-level fertility
 Total fertility rate (TFR)
 Factors that affect birth and fertility rates
 Factors that affect death rates
 Historical changes in U.S. fertility rates
 Doubling Time (Rule of 70)
 Life expectancy and Infant mortality rates in developed vs. developing
countries
Urban Population Issues
 Urban environmental problems
 Characteristics of sustainable “eco” cities
 Migration/urbanization patterns in U.S.
 Negative impacts of urban sprawl
 Heat island effect
Population Dynamics
 Tragedy of the commons
 Age structure diagrams
 Four stages of demographic transition
 Strategies to control human growth rate
 Population policies of China and Japan
 Influence of growth rates on I=PAT
 Effect of baby boomers in U.S.
 Population declines from reduced fertility vs. increased death
 Trends of population distribution in U.S. and world
o China and India Case Studies
Homework and Articles
 Population Worksheet Problems
 Lessons from Perrin Article
 Lessons from Chiras Article
31
Human Population Growth Computer Lab
2010-11 edition
For this exercise you will use an EXCEL spreadsheet available on the server. To
access the spreadsheet, go to the APES moodle site. Open the Data Set for
Population Growth Lab.
1. Make a graph of world population growth from 0-2000 using the data in the
excel file. Your teacher will show you how to make the graph.
2. Describe the data trends from year 0 until the 1700’s. How does it compare to
after 1700?
3. Adding a trendline:
a) Put cursor over a data point on the graph and RIGHT Click.
b) Then choose ‘TRENDLINE’ option.
c) Select ‘Exponential’ and then close.
Why doesn’t the trendline fit the data perfectly?
4. When did the rate of growth of the human population really move away
dramatically from a simple exponential growth curve and become more vertical
than horizontal? _________ What caused that change?
5. What was the population in 1300?__________ in 1400?____________
Explain the reason for the change.
6. Place a custom smoothed line on your graph
a) Right click on a data point and select ‘FORMAT DATA SERIES’.
b) Select ‘LINE STYLE’ and then choose a line width and SMOOTH
LINE option.
c) Print your graph.
32
On your graph, find and mark the following.
1 billion
year________
2 billion
year________
3 billion
year________
4 billion
year________
6 billion
year________
8. Use your estimations from above to determine the doubling time:
from 1 to 2 billion? __________
from 2 to 4 billion? __________
from 3 to 6 billion? __________
9. Has a doubling of world population occurred in your parents’ lifetime?
10. Look at the chart of Population Growth in Selected Countries found below
the previous data on the excel spreadsheet.. Fill out the chart in the following
way:
a) The Natural Increase is the % increase per year. To calculate it, subtract
the death rate from the birth rate and divide by 10.
b) Now calculate the doubling time by using the “Rule of 70”
Doubling Time = 70/ Natural Increase
11. a) What country has the greatest rate of population growth?_________
What is the rate?
_______% per year
a) What country is closest to zero population growth?_____________
b) What is the doubling time for the United States?_________year
c) The birth rates and death rates that are given are per 1000 people in one
year. The United States is actually growing faster than its natural
increase. The United States, with its open immigration policy, accepts 5
immigrants per thousand each year. Add 5 to the birth rate to show the
increase due to immigration.
a. What is the doubling time?___________years.
33
d) Check to see if the “Rule of 70” actually works. Look up the population
and % increase for 1952 in the World Population and Annual Addition,
1950-2007 chart.
population = ______________
annual addition = _____________
Natural rate of Increase (%)=___________
using the “Rule of 70” calculate the doubling time=_________
What year should the population be double?__________
According to the data chart, what was the population that year?_______________
Explain the reason for any difference.
12. Look at the data on the spreadsheet World Population Growth, 1950-2007.
a. What year were you born?________
b. What was the population that year?________
c. What was the growth rate that year?_______
Use the rule of 70 to determine the doubling time at the time of your birth
d. doubling time = ___________ years.
e. What year will that be___________?
13. Make a graph of World Population Growth, 1950-2010. If you need help, ask
your teacher how to make the graph.
 Add an exponential trendline.
You want to project the trendline into the future
a) Double click or highlight the trendline, and select ‘FORMAT
TRENDLINE’. Select ‘FORECAST FORWARD’—type in 30.
b) Does the trendline agree with your prediction in 12e?_________ Explain.
14. Print your graph.
34
15. Do you think that the projected trendline accurately describes the future
human population?______ Draw by hand your prediction of population growth
from 2007 to the future on your graph, and explain below why it differs from the
trendline generated by the computer.
16.Looking at the EXCEL worksheet of World Population growth, what is the
annual addition of people during last year?__________million people.
a) In 1918 an influenza (often called the Spanish Influenza) killed
21,000,000 people. At last year’s increase rate, how long would it take the
world to recover from such a devastating epidemic? Hint: how many
people were added last year?
b) Although humans have never traveled farther than the moon, and we
certainly are unlikely to terriform the moon or Mars within the next 20
years, lets say that our wildest dreams have come true, and we can send as
many as 500,000 people a year to a newly colonized planet (yeah, sure,
that will happen). Using last year’s increase rate, how long would it take
for the Earth’s human population to replace those 500,000 colonists?
c) Assuming no increase in population growth rates, how many people would
have to be shipped out per year to this mythical colony to keep Earth’s
population steady?_________________
35
Population Pyramid Internet Assignment
On the Internet, go to the U.S. Census Bureau database on world population at the
following address: http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/
Click on the ‘Data Access’ link.
1. Scroll down to United States and the current year, and obtain the demographic
SUMMARY data by clicking on ‘Submit’ and fill in below
Most Current Info
Births per 1,000 population....................
Deaths per 1,000 population....................
Rate of natural increase (percent).............
Annual rate of growth (percent)................
Life expectancy at birth (years)...............
Infant deaths per 1,000 live births............
Total fertility rate (per woman)...............
2. Why is the annual rate of growth higher than the natural rate of increase?
Click on the ‘Population Pyramids’ Tab.
3. Describe the present pyramid, and account for its shape.
4. Scroll down and change the year to 2025. According to this pyramid, what is predicted
to happen to the population demographics?
5. Is there a significant difference between the populations of men and women?
________ If there is, what might be a reason for the difference?
36
Go back to the IDB main page and choose the second country
Country #2 Angola
Highlight the country and submit query.
1. Look at the Demographic Indicators and answer the following questions
Most Current Info
Births per 1,000 population....................
Deaths per 1,000 population....................
Rate of natural increase (percent).............
Annual rate of growth (percent)................
Life expectancy at birth (years)...............
Infant deaths per 1,000 live births............
Total fertility rate (per woman)...............
2. What significant changes are projected for 2025?
3. a. Describe the shape of the current population pyramid.
b. a. How does the 2025 pyramid differ?
b. Why does the 2025 pyramid differ?
4. Is there a significant difference between the populations of men and women in
Angola? Explain possible causes.
5. Explain the reasons for the differences in questions 1-4 between Angola and the United
States. Give at least two reasons.
37
Country #3 Italy
1. Would you expect Italy to be more similar to the United States or to Angola?________
Why?
Highlight the country and submit query.
2. Look at the Demographic Indicators and answer the following questions
Most Current Info
Births per 1,000 population....................
Deaths per 1,000 population....................
Rate of natural increase (percent).............
Annual rate of growth (percent)................
Life expectancy at birth (years)...............
Infant deaths per 1,000 live births............
Total fertility rate (per woman)...............
3. What significant changes are projected for 2025?
4.a. Describe the shape of the current population pyramid.
b. How will the shape change by 2025?______________ Why?
6. What are two social problems that will occur as a result of demographic changes in
Italy?
38
Country #4__________________________ (your choice)
Choose any country, print out the graphs and demographic data and answer the
following questions
1. Does the population information indicate that this is a developed or developing
country?____________ Explain.
2. Label the pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-reproductive sections of the most
current pyramid graph. Use these categories to explain the projected changes in the
country in the next 25 years.
4. What social, economic or environmental issues are likely to become a problem in
this country? Explain.
39
Population Calculation Worksheet
Here are some handy equations to help you with the problems on the back of this
sheet. You will need to be familiar with the equations for your test and the AP
exam.
1. Population density:
 Population 

  Population Denisty
 AREA 
 270, 000, 000 people 
for example: 
  29 people per square kilometer
 9,166, 605 sq. km 
2. Birth or Death Rates:
 # of births/deaths per year 

  birth or death rate
Total population


 23, 452 births 
for example: 
  .025 = 2.5% birth rate
 942,721 people 
3. Finding Population Growth Rate (r):
 births - deaths 
NOTE: this does not include immigration or

r
 total population 
emigration
 20, 000births  15, 000deaths 
for example: 
  .01  1.0%
500, 000 people


4. Finding the Doubling Time of a Population:
THE RULE OF 70!!!




70%
.7

 or 
  doubling time (years)
 r (in percent form) 
 r (in decimal form) 
 70 
 .7 
for example: 
or 

  10 years
 .07 
 7% 
40
Population Problems
Given the following information, answer questions 1-3.
Schuhlsville is an island of 5000 square miles off the coast of Jabooty. There are
currently 250,000 inhabitants of the island. Last year, there were 12,000 new
children born (all cute and very smart) and 10,000 people were recorded as
deceased (mostly drunkards and hooligans).
1. What is the current population density and what do you expect will happen to
the density as time goes on?
2. What are the birth and death rates?
3. What stage in the demographic transition model do the birth and death rates
suggest for this society? Refer to your text for reference.
4. What is the population growth rate (r)?
5. In what year will the population of Schuhlsville double?
41
Unit: Sustaining Biodiversity
Reading:
Chapter 8 Text
Section 8-1 through 8-9
Chapter 9 Text
Section 9-1 through 9-5
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Hubbard Brook Activity
Grey Wolf Research and Debate
Worksheets:
Invasive Species “Wanted Poster”
Simple Math for ‘Geniuses’
42
Sustaining Biodiversity Review Sheet
Land Use
 Private vs. Public Land
 Land Management Agencies
 Major types of U.S. public lands (Multiple-Use, Moderately Restricted-Use,
Restricted Use)
 Environmentalist view of how public lands should be managed
 Ideas about Wilderness
Deforestation
 Tropical vs. Temperate, Dry vs. Rain Forests
 Old-growth vs. Secondary Forests
 Tree Plantations
 Benefits and Costs of Logging
 Effects of Logging Roads
 Types of Cutting (Clear vs. Selective)
 Ways to Log Sustainably
 Alternatives to Logging
 Crown fires vs. Surface fires
Endangered Species
 Differences between strategies and tactics of Ecosystem vs. Species approach
 Endangered vs. Threatened vs. Rare Species
 Instrumental vs. Intrinsic Value of Species
 Uses of Species for Humans
 Ecological Priorities
 Hot Spots
 Local vs. Ecological vs. Biological Extinction
 Characteristics that make species vulnerable
 Direct and underlying causes of premature extinction of wild species
o H.I.P.P.O
 Legal Solutions for Vulnerable Species (Endangered Species Act, Lacey Act,
CITES)
 Other approaches (Sanctuaries, Grassroots, Economic)
Homework and Labs
 Lessons from Hubbard Brook Activity
 Lessons from The Wilderness Idea video (Muir vs. Pinchot)
 Lessons from Grey Wolf Debate
43
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
Watershed Experiments
Introduction
When research at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest began about 50 years
ago, the northeastern states were experiencing a drought and many communities were
suffering from water shortages. Knowing that plants (especially trees) take up large
volumes of water from the soil, scientists wondered whether it might be a good idea to
cut down the trees around drinking water reservoirs. They came up with a hypothesis that
could be tested through long-term research: if trees were cut down and therefore not
taking up water, more water would flow into the reservoirs.
The Hubbard Brook flows through New Hampshire’s White Mountain National
Forest and drains a range of small mountains. The tributaries of Hubbard Brook form a
set of discrete watersheds, separated by mountain ridges. Because these watersheds share
many characteristics in common (for example, similar size and vegetation), they provide
an ideal setting for conducting ecosystem experiments.
In laboratory experiments, scientists use controls to determine whether the
treatments they impose cause any changes. For example, a scientist studying the effect of
salt on plants would expose treatment plants to salt and compare their growth to control
plants growing without salt. Similarly, scientists at Hubbard Brook devised experimental
treatments for three watersheds to see whether different ways of cutting trees would
affect the amount of water reaching the stream. When scientists manipulate the world
outside of the laboratory, they are conducting a field experiment.
In one watershed (watershed 2), researchers cut all the trees in the middle of
winter and left them lying on the snow so that the soil was not disturbed. In another
watershed, all the trees were cut and entirely removed (watershed 5). In a third watershed
(watershed 4), researchers divided the forest into 25-meter-wide strips. In the first year,
they cut and removed all the “merchantable” materials (leaving branches and tree tops) in
every third strip. In subsequent years, they returned and cut the adjacent strips. This
treatment was designed to look at less damaging ways of cutting a watershed. And
finally, the last watershed was left intact (watershed 3), similar to a control. However,
unlike laboratory studies, the ecosystem experiments did not have true controls. Although
the different watersheds were similar in size and vegetation, they were not exact
replicates. (It is virtually impossible to have true replicates or controls in nature because
of variations in soil, plants, etc.) Thus, the watershed that was left intact is referred to as
the “reference” rather than the control watershed.
Control: A treatment that reproduces all aspects of an experiment except the variable of
interest. Controls and treatments are the same before an experiment.
Reference: Similar to control, referring to a treatment that reproduces many of the
aspects of an experimental design, while excluding the variable of interest. A reference
and a treatment are designed to be as similar as possible, but may have several
differences.
44
Table 1. Hubbard Brook Watershed Treatments.
Watershed Size
(hectares)
2
15.6
3
4
42.4
36.1
5
21.9
Treatment
Clearcut in winter 1965-66. Trees left on the ground.
Herbicides applied in 1966, 1967, 1968.
Reference (no treatment).
Strip-cut in 3 phases, in 1970, 1972, 1974. Trees removed
from watershed.
Whole-tree harvested during the dormant season of 19831984.
To measure the changes in water flowing out of the different watersheds,
scientists installed special gauges on forest streams, called “weirs.” Weirs are permanent
concrete structures consisting of a large basin with a v-notch cut on the side of the
downstream end. The stream flows directly into the basin where it slows down and
becomes less turbulent, and then flows out over the v-notch. By constantly measuring
how high the stream is at is passes over this v-notch, and entering this height into a
known formula, researchers can determine streamflow volume. A picture of a weir in the
HBEF is below.
In this activity, you will be looking at some of the original streamflow data
collected at Hubbard Brook to determine the short-term and long-term results of a forest
tree-cutting experiment. You will be examining data from Watersheds 2 and 3.
Watershed 2 is the treatment (cut) watershed and Watershed 3 is the reference watershed.
All trees in Watershed 2 were cut in December 1965 and left on top of the snow. In the
summers of 1966, 1967, and 1968 an herbicide was applied to the entire watershed to
prevent the regrowth of any vegetation. Watershed 3 was not disturbed. This field
experiment was the first study to examine how forest cutting might influence streamflow
and subsequent reservoir levels.
45
Examine the spreadsheet on the computer or the hard copy handed out by your teacher. This
spreadsheet includes the streamflow and precipitation data collected from Watersheds 2 and 3 at the
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest over a 30-year period. Notice the headings at the top of the columns.
The first column is labeled “year.” Data from 1958-1988 are presented. Streamflow data from the
different watersheds (columns 2 and 3) are presented as annual streamflow in mm per standard area per
year. These values have been adjusted to account for the difference in size between the watersheds.
For each watershed, mean annual precipitation values are also provided (columns 4 and 5). As
you can imagine, the amount of rain usually varies from year to year, and the amount of rain that falls on
the watershed obviously influences how much water comes out in streamflow.
Here’s the link to the following data table:
http://www.hubbardbrook.org/education/TeacherActivities/Activ/Activity2DataStudents(Excel).xls
WS2 Annual
WS3 Annual
WS2 Annual
WS3 Annual
Streamflow
Streamflow
Precipitation
Precipitation
Year (mm/area/year) (mm/area/year) (mm/area/year) (mm/area/year)
1958
645.15
567.36
1167.5
1161.0
1959
1012.05
918.23
1482.6
1479.1
1960
825.22
752.06
1321.3
1325.3
1961
470.05
436.25
979.7
978.9
1962
777.31
699.29
1232.2
1230.6
1963
773.64
662.58
1138.6
1151.7
1964
712.15
630.45
1175.4
1175.2
1965
598.85
546.69
1115.2
1120.6
1966
1189.34
726.73
1222.3
1223.2
1967
1131.85
780.76
1315.1
1296.8
1968
1056.54
762.84
1268.2
1285.2
1969
1347.61
998.68
1368.5
1403.5
1970
905.47
697.53
1184.1
1201.5
1971
800.56
676.19
1164.2
1173.4
1972
1005.90
885.91
1431.3
1424.0
1973
1585.73
1396.43
1804.0
1792.8
1974
998.20
890.45
1406.8
1408.9
1975
1086.33
939.52
1422.4
1448.6
1976
1142.59
1022.06
1511.4
1516.0
1977
966.25
843.75
1382.7
1388.2
1978
722.04
613.79
1087.9
1085.7
1979
1136.17
1036.93
1417.0
1432.7
1980
585.22
548.28
1087.9
1101.1
1981
1129.09
1093.91
1631.5
1664.9
1982
802.73
756.12
1088.2
1114.4
1983
917.13
889.35
1436.6
1451.8
1984
1000.54
970.65
1396.8
1403.5
1985
634.76
627.84
1128.4
1137.2
1986
987.99
960.94
1364.0
1372.3
1987
790.47
797.09
1222.1
1234.6
1988
491.24
502.11
1004.2
1010.9
Initially, you will be graphing the streamflow data in Watersheds 2 and 3 for the years before the
clearcutting treatment (1958-1965). Scientists refer to this as “baseline” data. You will then graph
streamflow data in both watersheds for the five years following the treatment (1966-1970) and will assess
the streamflow response of Watershed 2. Lastly, you will graph the remaining data (1971-1988) from
both watersheds.
46
Examine the data. What is the best way to graph them? What will you use as your x-axis? Y-axis?
You are interested in determining the watershed baseline and then the response following the clearcutting
treatment. Your teacher may lead a classroom discussion about the best way to graph these data.
Follow the instructions below and answer the questions on a separate page.
1) Graph streamflow in Watershed 2 (the treatment watershed) from 1958 – 1965.
2) Do the same with Watershed 3. Graph the two watersheds together on the same page by adding another ‘series’
to your source data. These are the baseline data. Why is Watershed 3 a reference and not a control?
3) Do you see any trends in annual streamflow in the watersheds? How do the watersheds compare to each other
(e.g., does one watershed always have higher streamflow values, or is there variability between years and
watersheds)? What do these baseline (before cutting) data tell you about the watersheds’ streamflow? When doing
field experiments, scientists try to have an understanding of how the ecosystem is working before the treatment. In
interpreting the results of the field experiment, it is essential to compare the watershed streamflow after the
treatment (clearcut) to the streamflow before the experiment, for both watersheds. (What mistakes might you make
if you did not have data from before the clearcutting?) Think about why it is important to monitor the reference
watershed (Watershed 3) as well as the treatment watershed (Watershed 2) both before and after the treatment.
4) Continuing on the same graph(s), you should now include data from the next five years
(1966-1970). Do you see any changes in watershed streamflow? By about how much did streamflow change? Are
these changes in one or both watersheds? How do the two watersheds compare to each other in the five years
following the treatment? If there is a change, what year marks the change? The original hypothesis of this
experiment was that if we clearcut and applied herbicide to a watershed, more water would flow out of it. Did this
happen? Can you make any conclusions?
5) Now add the remaining data to the same graphs (1971-1988). What do you see now? What has happened to the
streamflow in both watersheds, and how do they compare to each other? Do you see any differences between the
short-term data (1966-1970) and the long-term data (1966-1988)? Does this information change your interpretation
of the results? Do the reference and treatment graphs follow the same pattern? How do you explain what is
happening?
6) Graph average annual precipitation in Watershed 2 and Watershed 3 on the same graph by adding two more
series. Your teacher may ask you to transfer the graph to a transparency and superimpose it on the graph from step
5, and if you made separate graphs, step 6. Does the precipitation information change your interpretation of the
results? Why or why not?
7) Another way to look at the relationship between the streamflows is to make a graph of the mathematical
difference between the two streamflow values for each year. Graph the difference between the two watersheds
(i.e., Watershed 2 annual streamflow – Watershed 3 annual streamflow). What can you learn from this graph that
isn’t obvious on your other graph of streamflow?
8) You have probably noticed that there are differences between the short-term and long-term WS2 streamflow
data. Why doesn’t WS2 simply return to pre-clearcut streamflow levels and instead shows lower than ‘normal’
levels in the final years?
Given all of the streamflow data you have seen, what can you say about the original hypothesis? Does cutting all
the trees in a watershed increase streamflow? Think about short- and long-term response. What does this
experiment say about the need for long-term research? If the research had stopped five years after the clearcut, do
you think your (and other people’s) perceptions of clearcutting effects on streamflow would be different than they
are now? If communities are trying to increase reservoir levels, is clearcutting nearby forests a good way to do it?
47
Invasive Species
“Wanted Poster”
http://whyfiles.org/160invasive_spec/index.html
Courtesy of M. Littleton, Carver H.S., Carver, Mass.
Also known as: Nonindigenous Species, Non-native Species, Introduced Species
Background Information: Go to the Environmental Literacy Council’s web page and read their
information on Non-native Species: http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/40.html
Choose a Species: Visit one of the following web sites (or the links at the bottom of the above web page).
The only requirement for choosing a species is that it must be a species that is invasive in the U.S.
1. A good place to find out about invasive species in California is
http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profiles/main.shtml
2. Species profile page of Invasivespecies.gov:
http://invasivespecies.gov/profiles/main.shtml
3. Biodiversity and Conservation: A Hypertext Book by Peter J. Bryant
http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec09/b65lec09.htm
Research: Obtain more information on your species by doing a web search. Be sure to document your
sources. (Title and address of all web pages used – put these on back of your poster)
The product:
1. A “Wanted” poster for your species. You must include:
NAME / ALSO KNOWN AS (latin name / common name / “criminal” name)
PICTURE – a drawing or photograph (color would be nice)
IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS – key features to look for when identifying the criminal
LAST SEEN – where did the species originally come from? include a map.
SUSPECTED HIDEOUTS - include a map of the U.S. with its current distribution shaded;
description of preferred habitat
CRIMES COMMITTED by your species (crimes must be specific to your species and not general
to all invasive species)
REWARD for elimination of your species (think ecologically, economically, socially, politically
– again, be specific for your species)
Color, neatness, and creativity
2. Bibliography -- list of internet sites /web addresses OR appropriate bibliographic information on
the back of the poster
3. You will be evaluated by your peers and the teacher.
48
49
Wolf Restoration
Northern Rocky Mountain wolves, a subspecies of the gray wolf (Canis lupus), were native to
Yellowstone when the park was established in 1872. Predator control was practiced here in the late 1800s
and early 1900s. Between 1914 and 1926, at least 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the 1940s, wolf
packs were rarely reported. By the 1970s, scientists found no evidence of a wolf population in
Yellowstone; wolves persisted in the lower 48 states only in northern Minnesota and on Isle Royale in
Michigan. An occasional wolf likely wandered into the Yellowstone area; however, no verifiable
evidence of a breeding pair of wolves existed through the mid 1990s. In the early 1980s, wolves began to
reestablish themselves near Glacier National Park in northern Montana; an estimated 75 wolves inhabited
Montana in 1996. At the same time, wolf reports were increasing in central and north-central Idaho, and
wolves were occasionally reported in the state of Washington. The wolf is listed as "endangered"
throughout its historic range in the lower 48 states except in Minnesota, where it is "threatened."
National Park Service (NPS) policy calls for restoring native species when: a) sufficient habitat exists to
support a self-perpetuating population, b) management can prevent serious threats to outside interests, c)
the restored subspecies most nearly resembles the extirpated subspecies, and d) extirpation resulted from
human activities.
The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 1987 Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan proposed
reintroduction of an "experimental population" of wolves into Yellowstone. In a report to Congress,
scientists from the University of Wyoming predicted reductions of elk (15%-25%), bison (5%-15%),
moose, and mule deer could result from wolf restoration in Yellowstone. A separate panel of 15 experts
predicted decreases in moose (10%-15%) and mule deer (20%-30%). Minor effects were predicted for
grizzly bears and mountain lions. Coyotes probably would decline and red foxes probably would
increase.
In October 1991, Congress provided funds to the U.S Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) to prepare, in
consultation with the NPS and the U.S. Forest Service, an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) on
restoring wolves to Yellowstone and central Idaho. After several years and a near-record number of
public comments, the Secretary of Interior signed the Record of Decision on the Final Environmental
Impact Statement (FEIS) for reintroduction of gray wolves to both areas. Staff from Yellowstone, the
USFWS, and participating states prepared to implement wolf restoration. The USFWS prepared special
regulations outlining how wolves would be managed as a nonessential experimental population under
section 10(j) of the Endangered Species Act. These regulations took effect in November 1994. As
outlined in the Record of Decision, the states and tribes would implement and lead wolf management
outside the boundaries of national parks and wildlife refuges, within federal guidelines. The states of
Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana have begun preparation of wolf management plans.
Park staff assisted with planning for a soft release of wolves in Yellowstone. This technique has been
used to restore red wolves in the southeastern United States and swift fox in the Great Plains and involves
holding animals temporarily in areas of suitable habitat. Penning of the animals is intended to discourage
immediate long-distance dispersal. In contrast, a hard release allows animals to disperse immediately
wherever they choose, and has been used in Idaho where there is limited access to the central Idaho
wilderness.
In the autumn of 1995 at three sites in the Lamar Valley, park staff completed site planning, and
archaeological and sensitive plant surveys. Approximately 1 acre was enclosed at each site with 9-gauge
chain link fence in 10' x 10' panels. These enclosures could be dismantled and reconstructed at other sites
if necessary. The fences had a 2' overhang and a 4' skirt at the bottom to discourage climbing over or
digging under the enclosure. Each pen had a small holding area attached, to allow a wolf to be separated
50
from the group for medical treatment. Inside each pen were several plywood security boxes to provide
shelter. For the 1996 release, one pen was relocated to Blacktail Plateau and another was constructed in
the Firehole Valley in central Yellowstone. Subsequently pens have been relocated from Lamar to other
areas in the park interior to facilitate releases into other geographic areas or the park or special
circumstances that require the temporary penning of wolves.
The Debate
States.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
You will be assigned to argue one side of the debate regarding wolf populations in the United
Your team should conduct additional research regarding the following:
The terms of the Endangered Species Act: How does it define species as
“endangered/threatened?”
a. What problems does the language of the law create?
The history of the wolf population in the United States.
What position do local ranchers hold on the issue and why?
What niche do the wolves fulfill in the ecosystem?
Other relevant issues
The debate will follow a non-traditional format. While each team will be given equal opportunity to
present their arguments, the moderator may allow for pertinent interjections and objections to weak
arguments or assertions.
51
Unit: Risk, Toxicology, and Human Health
Reading:
Chapter 14 Text
Section 14-1 through 14-5
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Serial Dilution Lab
LD50 Lab
Worksheets:
Parts per Million (PPM) Visualization Worksheet
LD50 Worksheet
Simple Math for Geniuses
52
Risk, Health, and Toxicology Review Sheet
Risk and Assessment
 Risk vs. Probability
 Risk Assessment vs. Risk Management (options to consider)
 Precautionary principle
 Types of studies (in vivo, in vitro, epidemiological, case studies)
 Ways to determine if risk is acceptable
 Lessons from Asbestos
 Cost-Benefit Analysis
 Environmental vs. Economical costs and benefits (graph)
Toxicology
 Factors affecting response to toxic substances
 Chronic vs. Acute Effects
 Chemical Interactions (positive and negative types)
 Definition of Poison
 LD50 or LC50
 Threshold vs. Non-threshold response
 Linear vs. Non-linear response
Hazards
 4 Types of Hazards
 Mutagens
 Teratogens
 Carcinogens
 Hormonally active agents
 Neurotoxin
 Transmissible vs. Non-transmissible diseases (see fig. 14.3- which is viral/bacterial?)
 Pathogens vs. Vectors
 ‘New’ diseases:
o Malarial pathway
o SARS, West Nile Virus
o HIV (wrt Africa)
 Persistent Organic Pollutant (POP’s)
Activities
 Lessons from Brine Shrimp Lab (incl. serial dilution)
53
Serial Dilution Lab
In this unit we will be discussing measurements of concentration that us e both very big and very
small numbers. This exercise is intended to familiarize us with using scientific notation (to express big
and small number easily) and the process of using serial dilutions to make concentrations of known
values.
Materials:
Purple Dye (100% concentration)
Dilution Well plate
Dropper pipette
Distilled water
Procedure:
1. Put 10 drops of Purple Dye in one well of the plate. This 100% solution can also be called
1X.
2. Take one drop from the well you just filled and put it into the well next to the first well.
Using a clean dropper pipette, add 9 drops of distilled water to the single drop of 1X solution.
3. The second well should now have 10 drops of liquid (1 of Purple Dye and 9 distilled water).
This is your 0.1X solution.
4. Repeat this dilution process until you can barely see the blue dye in the wells. Record the
concentrations (as 1X, 0.1X, etc.) of each dilution as you make them on the next page in the
appropriate location. You may also want to describe the color/darkness of the dilutions.
5. Make one more dilution so that you can no longer see and blue dye. Since we can no longer
see the Dye, does that mean there is no Dye in the dilution?
54
Serial Dilution Data Page
Concentration= 1X
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
Concentration=
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
The above example was simple 1/10 dilution. In our LD50 Lab, you will also need to make dilutions
that are not simply 1/10 of the previous concentration.
Assume you are starting with a 100 mL of 10X solution. Explain how you would make a 5X dilution?
Explain how you could make a 2.5X dilution. There is more than one way to do this, but try to do so
using the least amount of liquid.
How would you make a 7.5X dilution?
55
Part 2 Calculations
What part of a 2 year-old’s lifetime is represented by one minute? First circle your guess then
calculate it.
A. 1 ppm
B. 1 ppb
C. 1 ppt
D. 2 ppm
Show work. Hint: How many minutes are there in 2 years?
How old does someone have to be in order for one second to represent 1 ppb?
34 mg of salt is added to a liter of water. Express the salt concentration as ppm. ______________
Reminder: 1 gram = 1,000 mg and 1 ml of water has a mass of 1 gram.
The following table lists the concentration of gases in the atmosphere as percent concentrations.
Convert them to ppm and ppb. Try to find the pattern for simply moving the decimal place.
Gases in
atmosphere
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Water vapor
Carbon Dioxide
N20
CFCs
Hydrogen
Ozone (ground
level)
Ozone
As a percent
ppm
ppb
78.0
19.0
0.4
0.035
0.00003
0.000005
0.00005
0.000001
780,000
780,000,000
0.001
56
(stratosphere)
57
Serial Dilution Conversions
1:10
1:100
1:1000
ppm
________ppm
ppm
ppm
________ppb
1:10,000
1:100,000
1:1,000,000
___________ppm
_____________ppm
____________ppm
__________ppb
____________ppb
____________ppb
_
1:10,000,000
__________ppm
____________ppb
1:10,000,000,000
1:100,000,000
1:1,000,000,000
________ppm
__________ppm
_______ppb
__________ppb
________ppt
__________ppt
1:100,000,000,000
1:1,000,000,000,000
________ppb
___________ppb
__________ppt
____________ppb
_______ppt
__________ppt
58
59
LD-50 Worksheet
PART A.
Three trials were run for the following experiment. Eight test tubes were filled with different concentrations of KCl.
Into each of these were placed 20 healthy Daphnia (also known as “water fleas”). After two hours the number of
dead Daphnia was recorded in each of the test tubes.
KCl
(mg/l)
Trial A
Trial B
Trial C
%
survivors
0
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
3
2
5
7
5
9
12
12
16
17
15
19
20
19
20
20
20
You are given the responsibility of determining the LC50 (LC50 stands for lethal concentration, as opposed to LD50 ,
which deals with lethal dosage) for KCl and Daphnia. To determine LC50 you will need to graph percent survivors
against concentration and use the graph to determine what concentration produces 50% fatalities. Construct a table
of results and graph that allow you to determine LC50 . Print your graph and mark LC-50 on the graph. Write
the value below
PART B.
Substance Z has been shown to be very effective in killing certain disease-transmitting insects. Before it was allowed
to be released for general use, it was necessary to determine whether Z is classified as a poison. An initial step in this
process involves determining the LD50 for monkeys. Four groups, each with 20 monkeys (that’s 80 monkeys!), were
used in the study. Each monkey had a weight of 5 kg. Monkeys in each group were administered with a shot of Z
and,
after
Amount of substance Z administered (mg)
0
50
100
150
two
Number of dead monkeys (20 per trial)
0
2
3
5
% mortality
weeks, the total number of dead animals was measured. For humanitarian and economic reasons it is preferred to
minimize the number of monkey deaths.
Complete the table of results and graph the appropriate information to show the LD-50. To extrapolate your curve go
to the trendline function, then use the options section to “forward” the curve.
Print the graph.
Determine LD-50, mark it on your graph, and label it.
A toxicologist defines a poison as any substance with an LD 50 of less than 50mg per kg of body weight.
Determine whether Z is a “poison”. Explain your reasoning!
60
61
LD50 Lab
The use of herbal products as medicinal remedies has increased greatly in the past decade.
We are inundated with advertisements that tell us the natural remedies will accomplish cures and
imply that the term “natural” means free of side effects. Many herbal products may do what they
claim, and some do not. Any product that has a desired effect is also likely to have some
undesired side effects. Unfortunately, only a few of the herbal remedies have scientific data to
back up their clinical benefits, and some are known to be dangerous. Herbal teas remain an under
investigated group of plant products.
Protocol
Tea used (species name ) _______________________________
(common name)_______________________________
purported effects of tea:
You will make 3 vials (5 ml each) of the following solutions:
10x, 7.5x, 5x, 2.5x, 1x, .5x, .1x as well as a control of 0x.
Unless you are using the stock solution (10x, 1x or .1 x) directly on the shrimp, you must make
each solution in a small beaker and stir it before adding the solution to the shrimp.
Part 1: Preparation of tea extract. A cup of tea contains 200 ml of water per teabag, so that
would be considered a 1.0x dosage. You will start with a 10x dosage by using 4 teabags in 80 ml
of brine (seawater). This will be prepared for you when you arrive.
10X STOCK SOLUTION (pre made by your teacher):

1X STOCK SOLUTION:
Make a serial dilution of the 10x stock in order to make a 1x stock solution. Add 2 ml of 10x
stock solution to 18 ml of seawater. The resulting 20 ml of solution will be 1x.

0.1X STOCK SOLUTION:
Make a serial dilution of the 1x stock in order to make a 0.1x stock solution. Add 2 ml of 1x
stock solution to 18 ml of seawater. The resulting 20 ml of solution will be 0.1x.
62







Part 2: making the remaining tea solutions
To make a 7.5x solution, place 3.75 ml of the 10x stock solution and 1.25 ml of seawater into a
vial containing 10 shrimp- label 7.5x. Repeat twice for the other two vials.
To make a 5x solution, place 2.5 ml of stock solution and 2.5 ml of seawater into a vial containing
10 shrimp- label 5x. Repeat twice for the other two vials.
How will you make a 2.5 x solution? Write your answer here--
Place 5 ml of the 1x stock solution into a vial containing 10 shrimp- label 1x. Repeat twice
To make a 0.5x solution, place 2.5 ml of the 1x stock solution and 2.5 ml of seawater into a vial
containing 10 shrimp- label 0.5x. Repeat twice for the other two vials.
Place 5 ml of the 0.1x stock solution into a vial containing 10 shrimp- label 0.1x. Repeat twice
How will you make a control? Write your answer here---
Part 3 preparing the shrimp (this can be done while the dilutions are being made):
In this lab we will use a small crustacean, the brine shrimp. It is normally found in brackish
water and is a very hearty little organism and able to tolerate high salt concentrations. You will
need to place 10 live shrimp in each of the 24 vials. Whether you add the shrimp to the dilutions
or the dilutions to the shrimp is academic as long as a minimum of brine water is transferred with
the shrimp. This is important because it helps to keep the dilutions close to the actual values you
have created.
After 24 hours, count the surviving brine shrimp. Calculate the % death
Concentration
# dead
% mortality Concentration
# dead
% mortality
10x
1
10
1
10
1
7.5
.5
7.5
.5
7.5
.5
5
0.1
5
0.1
5
0.1
2.5
0
2.5
0
2.5
0
Using Excel, plot a scatter graph of concentration (X axis) vs. mortality (Y axis) for any of the
teas used by your class. Use a logarithmic scale for the x-axis. This does a good job of spreading
out the lower concentrations. If you use a logarithmic scale, you must change the control to
0.001X because ‘0’ does not appear on a log scale. You are probably better off drawing in a
trendline of your own rather than having Excel plot one for you. Remember that it is possible for
a natural die off and threshold response to affect your results. Mark the LC-50’s on your
printed graphs.
63
Analysis Questions:
1. Although Brine Shrimp are hardy enough to withstand a wide range of salt concentrations, they
are short-lived. Do you have any evidence of a background death rate independent of the addition
of herbal teas? _________ Explain.
2. What is the LC-50 for your tea on brine shrimp?_____________
3. Based on your data in this lab what is the safe concentration for brine shrimp-- Lowest
observable Effect Concentration (LOEC)?
4. If you pursue this investigation further in order to publish your results in a scientific journal,
what would you do to improve upon this lab?
5. Brine Shrimp have a higher tolerance for many pollutants than does another crustacean, the
Daphnia, also called a water flea. Indicator species are used to study the overall health of an
ecosystem. If you were to study an ecosystem would you use the Brine Shrimp or the Daphnia as
indicator species? _________________Explain your reasoning.
64
65
Unit: Food, Soil and Pest Management
Reading:
Chapter 10 Text
Section 10-1 through 10-7, review 3-5
Chapter 3 Text
Section 3-5
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Soil Lab
Worksheets:
Pesticide Spraying Worksheet
The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race, Jared Diamond
Simple Math for Geniuses
Aquiculture: Down on the Salmon Farm Video Questions
66
Food, Soil, and Pesticides Review Sheet
Soil and Erosion
 Soil composition
 Soil horizons (O, A, B, C)
 Humus
 Loam
 Regolith vs. Bedrock
 Pedalfers vs. Pedocals vs. Laterites vs. Bauxite
 Leaching
 Salinization
 Waterlogging
 Desertification
 Sources of and Solutions to Soil Erosion
 Soil differences between biomes
 Soil Permeability/Water Retention
Agriculture and Food Production
 Conventional vs. Conservation Tillage
 Cropping Methods (Contour planting, Alley cropping, Terracing, Windbreaks)
 Crop Rotation
 Organic (green manure) vs. Inorganic Fertilizer
 Traditional vs. Industrial Agriculture
 Types of pesticides (specific examples; DDT, Malathion, Atrazine)
 Malnutrition vs. Undernutrition
 The Green Revolution
Grazing and Ranchlands
 Potential uses of grasslands
 Potential threats to grasslands from grazing
 Proper range management
 Ways grazing can be beneficial to grassland health and biodiversity
 Pros and cons to predator control on rangeland
Pesticides
 Benefits of pesticides
 Disadvantages of pesticides (resistance, human harm, treadmill, biomagnification, ecosystem
disruption, runoff, spray drift, hormone disruption)
 Alternative pest control (new cultivation methods, genetically engineered crops, biological
control, BT (Bacillus Thuringiensis), sterilization, insect hormones, pheromones)
 Integrated Pest Management
 Pesticide Treadmill
 FIFRA and FQPA ‘96
Homework and Articles
 Lessons from Soil Lab
 Lessons from Video(s) –Aquaculture and Bt
67
Soils Lab
Background
Unless you are a farmer or a gardener, you probably think of soil as dirt --as something
you don’t want on your hands, clothes or carpet. Yet your life, and the lives of most land
organisms depend on soil, especially topsoil. Soil is not only the basis of agricultural food
production, but is essential for the production of many other plant products such as wood, paper,
cotton, and medicines. In addition, soil helps purify the water we drink, and is important in the
decomposition and recycling of biodegradable wastes.
There are three basic soil types, pedalfers, pedocals, and laterites. Pedalfers, common in
areas of high rainfall have a high concentration of aluminum and iron because all of the soluble
calcium carbonate has been leached out. Laterites, found in tropical areas with extremely high
rainfall, have even higher aluminum and iron concentrations, and are very infertile. Pedocals,
common in arid regions, contain high concentrations of calcium carbonate.
For all of the investigations, you will use soil collected from your home and soils provided by
your teacher. You may work with a lab partner, but must conduct individual tests on your own
soil sample. Each investigation or part of an investigation preceded by ** must be done
individually.
A. Soil Texture
Through the process of weathering, mineral rocks are broken down over long periods of
time into fine particles of clay (less than 0.002 mm in diameter), silt (0.002 to 0.05 mm) and sand
(0.5 to 1.0 mm). The relative amounts of the different sizes of particles are responsible for two
very important properties of soil: its fertility and its ability to hold water. Humus, or
decomposed plant material, is an important component in soils, but is not considered as part of its
texture.
**Investigation 1- Soil texture by sedimentation: Estimating relative amounts of sand, silt and
clay. Do individually







Place 60-80 ml of your soil sample into a 100 ml graduated cylinder. Break up any large chunks.
SAVE YOUR REMAINING SOIL FOR LATER.
Fill the graduated cylinder to the 100 ml line with water.
Stretch a piece of Parafilm over the top of the cylinder to seal.
Shake vigorously, inverting the cylinder often.
Wait until the end of the class for the soil to settle into a column. The clay will not completely
settle out for many hours, and you may have to let the column settle overnight.
You will observe at least three layers within the column: sand, silt and clay. Estimate the
volumes of each. Sand looks like distinct particles, silt is gritty, and clay is uniform in color.
Ignore the humus.
Total column of soil
Volume of soil
column
% of total
soil column
sand
Silt
clay
100
68
1. From what part of Los Angeles did you obtain this soil sample?_________________
2. Use the soil texture diagram to determine the kind of soil ._________________
B. Water Retention The ability of soil to hold onto water is water retention.
Water Retention Investigation- do in pairs
1. Mass one part of a glass petri dish or watch glass. Note the number on the dish. Add a spoonful
of wet (but not dripping) sand and mass again.
2. If there is no number on the dish, add one for identification, and place it in the drying oven or
environmental chamber.
3. Do the above to a spoonful of wet clay.
4. After the samples have dried in the oven for 24 hours, mass them again.
5. The water holding capacity of a soil is calculated by:
wet - dry
_______ x (100)
dry
sand
Clay
mass of empty dish
mass wet sand/clay and dish
mass wet
mass dry and dish
mass dry
Water holding capacity
69
C. Soil pH
The acidity of a soil is another factor determining the nutrient status of a soil. Most crops
do well in soils with a pH between 6-8. In general more acid soils, low pH, have lower fertility
than more basic soils because the H+ ions in the acid displace the positively charged nutrient ions
on the soil particles. These nutrient ions can then be leached from the soil. Calcium ions, a
natural component of limestone, decrease the acidity of the soil. Gardeners can improve acidic
soil by adding lime which contains calcium ions. Alkaline soils are less of a problem. Highly
alkaline soils can be treated with tannic acid or alum.
Some of the factors which affect soil pH are
 the rock from which the soil is derived- for example much of the rock in the arid
Southwest contains calcium carbonate, the same substance in Rolaids
 the amount of rainfall which leaches away calcium ions
 the kind of vegetation growing in the soil- pines often cause the soil to be acidic
 acid rain is a greater problem on the East Coast than on the West
**Soil pH investigation #1 do individually
Determine the pH of your soil sample, using the pH test in your Soil Test Kit.
pH = _____
1. Is the pH of your soil good for most plants?_______ If not, what could you do to improve your
soils pH?
Soil pH investigation #2: comparing the pH of three soils. Do in pairs
Determine the pH of Los Angeles soil, a soil sample from New Hampshire (derived from granite)
and a soil sample from Yosemite, California (also derived from granite). Both the New
Hampshire soil and the Yosemite soil were collected in a coniferous forest. The Los Angeles soil
was collected on campus. The bedrock of the campus is a diatomaceous shale cemented with
CaCO3
soil
pH
Los Angeles
New Hampshire
Yosemite
D. Soil Profiles Investigation do in pairs
1. The six soil samples in glass jars are the three horizons from two different locations. One
location is Georgia and the other is Los Angeles. Which location is most likely to produce a
pedocal?______________________ Why?
2. What two metals are likely to build up in a pedalfer
3. How does your answer to question 2 help you to identify which of the soils provided is a
pedalfer?
70
4. Place the sample numbers in the proper location in the table below and explain what evidence
led you to determine the horizon type.
Georgia
Los
Angeles
Evidence of horizon type
A-Horizon
BHorizon
C-Horizon

Which locale is most likely to have rocks that contain calcium carbonate?__________
Summary Questions on Next Page-
71
Summary Questions
1. What soil texture retains the most water?_______________
2. What results would you expect of silt? ________________
3. Three APES students forgot their soil samples from home, so they dug a hole on the campus
and all gathered soil from that hole. Their soil textures were as follows.
Student 1
Clay loam
Student 2
loam
Student 3
Clay
Which student was the last to take soil out of the hole?_________ Explain your reasoning
4. Montmorillonite is a mineral that expands 100x as it absorbs water. Is montmorillonite a kind
of clay or sand?________________
5. Did the pH of the Los Angeles soil differ from the soil in Yosemite? _____ If so, describe one
likely reason for the difference .
6. Did the pH of the New Hampshire soil differ from the Yosemite soil? ______ If so, describe
one likely reason for the difference.
7. Based on pH, which soil, L.A., Yosemite, or N.H., is least likely to be fertile?__________ Explain:
72
73
74
Analysis
1. What are two ways to explain why the pest population increased in 1978 when in 1977 it
appeared that it had been eliminated in area A?
2. What indication is there that Area C was not directly affected by aerial spraying of the
pesticide?
3. a. What effect did the spraying have on the insect predator populations?
b. How will this eventually influence the size of the pest populations?
4. a. Thoroughly explain how the birds and fish in the sanctuary could be affected by the spraying
in the pine forest.
4. b. A well known insecticide, now banned in the United States, had this effect on some bird
species. What is the insecticide and what are two species of birds so affected? What does this tell
one about their diet?
5. What is the LD50 for the fish exposed to the insecticide? ________________ Remember,
LD50 is the dosage that is lethal to 50% of a sample population.
6. Biodiversity is a good measure of ecosystem stability. What has happened to the stability of
these three ecosystems studied? Back up your statements with specifics!
75
Aquaculture – Down on the Salmon Farm
1)
2)
3)
4)
What is aquaculture? How old is this industry?
Why is aquaculture the way of the future according to the business owners in this movie?
Give examples of three regions that have major aquaculture industries?
How can farm-raised salmon and other finfish like cod and halibut cause harm to wild fish? What
has been done to remedy this problem?
5) What type of food is used to feed farm-raised fish? What do the finfish discussed here eat in the
wild?
6) What are the main consequences of their diet for human health?
7) How should consumers plan their diets to reduce these health risks?
8) Describe some of the issues related to food labels that are confusing to consumers when they go
to the supermarkets to purchase fish?
9) What is Beggiotoa? What causes this condition? How is it a problem for fish farms and the
environments where the farms are located?
10) What do the sediments in substrate below areas where we have fish farms look like?
11) What are the main compounds that form as a result of low oxygen (hypoxic or anoxic)
conditions?
12) Compare and contrast the various new types of aquaculture (open ocean or off-shore, land-based
polyculture) to the traditional near-shore/estuarine type. Describe their benefits and consequences.
13) Consider the following proposals for development of aquaculture, and debate their benefits and
consequences in class:
a) Move finfish pens offshore (open ocean aquaculture), and allow stronger current
systems to disperse any excess waste.
b) Develop aquaculture as a land-based industry that circulates seawater through a
controlled system.
c) Create floating finfish tanks that would drift with the ocean currents.
76
Unit: Water
You will need to obtain a family/household water bill for this unit. Get one NOW!
Reading:
Chapter 11 Text
Section 11-1 through 11-9
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Dissolved Oxygen, Productivity, and B.O.D. Lab
Water Quality Lab
Worksheets:
Water Use Survey
Simple Math for Geniuses
77
Water Review Sheet
Water Resources
 water’s unique properties
 hydrologic cycle
 drainage basins/watersheds
 confined vs. unconfined aquifers
 water table, zone of saturation/aeration, natural recharge
 uses for water resources in U.S.
 domestic water uses
 reasons for water shortages
 solutions for water shortages
 use of dams/reservoirs
 use of groundwater (benefits and drawbacks)
 desalination (Methods, pros and cons)
 water transfer (projects, pros and cons)
 ways to use water more efficiently
 methods of efficient irrigation (LEPA, drip, etc.)
 case studies of water use gone awry (Owens Lake, Mono Lake, Aral Sea, James Bay, Three
Gorges Dam, Colorado River)
 floods (causes, effects i.e. Aswan Dam)
Water Pollution
 pollution types and sources (Table 11-1)
 point vs. nonpoint sources
 oxygen sag curve
 differences in stream vs. lake pollution
 eutrophication process vs. oligotrophic
 biological oxygen demand (what is it, why would it change?)
 groundwater pollution (sources, rates, prevention)
 sources of ocean pollution (ex. oil spills BP, Chesapeake Bay)
 methods of reducing surface water pollution
 methods of treating sewage (basic, advanced, using wetlands)
Wetlands
 where are they
 what are the types
 what roles do they serve
 what threatens them
 how are they protected and what are the difficulties
Legislation
 Clean Water Act, RCRA, CERCLA
Lessons from
 Mulholland’s Dream
 Dissolved Oxygen, BOD, Productivity Lab
 Water Quality Lab
78
Dissolved Oxygen, Productivity, and B.O.D. Lab
Most living organisms, including aquatic organisms, require certain levels of oxygen to
carry out normal metabolic processes. They are thus “aerobic” organisms. The D.O. (dissolved
oxygen) of a healthy aquatic ecosystem typically ranges from about 4 to 8 ppm (mg/liter). In
general, a D.O. of below 4 ppm (mg/liter) in a river or lake represents a very unhealthy situation
for fish and other organisms.
The maximum amount of D.O. that a given aquatic ecosystem can hold depends on
atmospheric pressure and water temperature. Water that is agitated comes in contact with the air,
allowing it to be saturated with oxygen. The amount of D.O. in the system can also depend on the
amount of organic material present.
The B.O.D. (biochemical oxygen demand) is a measure of the amount of aerobic
respiration in an aquatic ecosystem. Precisely defined, the B.O.D. is the amount of oxygen
(mg/liter) consumed by microorganisms in a sample of water kept at 20°C (about room
temperature) over a 5-day period. Sterile water would have no B.O.D.
A water sample with healthy algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms will have a moderate
B.O.D. Raw (untreated) sewage usually has a B.O.D. of 100 to 200.
One of the greatest challenges to the health of an aquatic community is the addition of
large amounts of organic matter, such as sewage, garbage, or plant and animal wastes. Although
these pollutants are highly biodegradable, (capable of being broken down by normal biological
processes), a healthy aquatic ecosystem can handle only so much of them before it becomes
overloaded. Organic material is oxygen demanding waste, which means that decomposer bacteria
require oxygen to break it down. When a body of water becomes overloaded with oxygendemanding waste, oxygen-using bacteria can deplete the D.O. content of the water below the
level needed to support the diversity of organisms characteristic of healthy ecosystems.
Besides increasing B.O.D. directly, organic wastes can also indirectly raise the demand for
oxygen. Organic wastes generally contain high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus,
substances that act as limiting nutrients for plants. Because nitrogen and phosphorus are usually
present in ecosystems only in very small concentrations they act as “fertilizers” when added to
lakes and streams in larger amounts. Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution can cause unnatural
blooms of algae and other aquatic plants. When these plants die and begin to decay, aquatic
microorganisms consume large amounts of oxygen in the decomposition process. The resulting
abrupt decrease in D.O. is called an “oxygen crash” and can, in turn, bring about massive fish dieoffs. Ultimately, this kind of pollution can reduce a healthy ecosystem to a smelly, virtually
lifeless sewer inhabited by select bacteria or other organisms suited to anaerobic conditions.
Continued on next page
79
The D.O. Test and Solubility
1. You will test a beaker of tap water with the dissolved oxygen meter. First make certain that the
meter has been calibrated. Gently place the probe into the sample bottle, being certain not to
agitate the water, for that motion could increase the D.O. Record the D.O. in the table.
2. Determine the percent oxygen saturation of the sample. Since the amount of oxygen that can
be dissolved in water depends upon the temperature, you will compare the D.O. with the
temperature to determine percent oxygen saturation using a chart called a Rawson’s nomogram.
Place dots on the diagram to mark the temperature and the D.O. of a sample and, using a ruler,
draw a line and connect the two dots. The point at which this line crosses the “% Saturation” line
gives you the percent saturation of your sample.
3. Place your data in the data table. On the next line add 5 oC to the temperature, and using the
same DO, determine the % dissolved oxygen.
4. On the third line, subtract 5 oC from your temperature reading and again using the same DO,
determine the % dissolved oxygen.
Water Temperature
D.O.
% saturation
80
Part 1 D.O. conclusions
1. What is the effect of temperature upon dissolved oxygen?
2. If a sample of hot water and cold water have the same D.O., which sample is more likely to be
saturated?
3. What happens to an open can of soda that is heated up? Why?
4. Based upon your D.O. results, which aquatic ecosystem could support a greater number of
animals, arctic or tropical waters. Why?
81
Part 2: The B.O.D. Test
You will perform a simplified B.O.D. test on two bottles of water by comparing the D.O. of a
water sample before and after 3 days (rather than the standard 5 days).
1. Fill two B.O.D. bottles with your water sample. Use the oxygen meter, and determine the D.O.
of the samples. There should be no more than a 0.5 ppm difference between the samples, since
they come from the same source.
2. Make certain that there are no air bubbles in the B.O.D. bottle. Fill the bottle until it is
overflowing, then firmly put on the stopper. Invert the bottle. If a bubble floats up, try again. Do
the same for the second bottle.
3. Cover one bottle with aluminum foil, and leave the other uncovered. Place both bottles in the
light of the environmental chamber.
Sample:
Initial D.O.
Final D.O.
Light
Dark
1. B.O.D. can be determined by Initial D.O. - Final D.O. of dark bottle
The B.O.D. reflects the amount of aerobic respiration in the sample. Usually a high
B.O.D. reflects the amount of organic waste being consumed by aerobic bacteria. Algae also carry
on aerobic respiration. In addition to aerobic respiration, algae can photosynthesize. A sample
with a lot of algae may have a high B.O.D., yet still be very productive. Productivity is a
measurement of the number of carbon atoms being fixed by photosynthesis.
2. The gross productivity can be determined by using the final D.O. of light bottle – final D.O. of
dark bottle. Determine the gross productivity of your samples.
Your sample source
B.O.D.
sample sources
B.O.D.
gross productivity
Class Data
gross productivity
82
Part 3 B.O.D. and Productivity Conclusions
1. Discuss the differences in B.O.D. of each of the samples and suggest sources of
microorganisms or oxygen-demanding wastes in the sources with a high B.O.D.
2. Discuss the differences in productivity of each of the samples and suggest reasons for these
differences.
3. Do any of the data make no sense in terms of productivity or BOD? If so, what sources of
error do you think are responsible?
Part 4 Fecal Coliform Test
1.
Using a sterile pipette, add 1mL (20 drops) of sample water to the fecal coliform test vial (it’s
filled with either pink or purple liquid).
2.
Wait 24 hours. If the color changes to yellow, there are fecal coliform bacteria present in the
sample.
Source
Fecal Coliform?
83
84
Water Quality Lab
Purpose: The purpose of this investigation is to determine how the dissolved oxygen, turbidity,
phosphate, and nitrate levels vary within Balboa Lake. Five samples from different locations (as noted
below) in the lake were collected for your convenience.
A secondary purpose is to practice composing and revising scientific hypotheses.
Background: Balboa Lake is an artificial lake, lined with concrete that is within Sepulveda Flood
Control Basin. It is part of a grassy park and contains fish, ducks, and small boats. The water entering
Lake Balboa at a cascade located at the Northern end comes from the Tillman Water Reclamation Plant.
Location of Samples:
Sample 1 - Top of Cascades
Sample 2 - Bottom of Cascades
Sample 3 - Along shoreline,
Sample 4 - At end of lake
Sample 5 - In the cement-lined outlet
Hypotheses- Before we test any samples, we must construct a hypothesis to guide our thinking.
Make a hypothesis that addresses the water quality parameters noted above (and below) and how they
may or may not change from one location to another in the lake. Keep in mind that a healthy lake has a
high (5-10ppm) dissolved oxygen content, very low nitrate, phosphate, and turbidity. Your hypothesis
should state what you expect to find at each site and why.
 Initial Hypothesis:
85
You will use the following methods to test the water quality parameters noted:
Turbidity- measures water clarity.





Close the drain tube of the turbidity tube by squeezing the crimp.
Carefully fill the transparency tube
While looking down through the opening of the tube, partially open the drain crimp, slowly drawing
off the water.
When the black and white pattern at the base of the transparency tube faintly begins to appear,
immediately tighten the crimp and record the level of water remaining by reading the centimeter rule
on the side of the tube.
Note that the longer the column in cm, the more transparent the water must be. A low reading
indicates that the water is turbid. A high reading means that the water is clear
Nitrate-Nitrogen 1 ppm – 15 ppm
 Use Nitrate-Nitrogen kit (3354)











Fill a test tube (0106) to the 5 ml mark with water sample.
Add one Nitrate #1 tablet (2799)
Cap and mix until tablet disintegrates
Add one Nitrate #2 CTA tablet (NN-3703)
Cap and mix until tablet disintegrates
Wait 5 minutes
Insert Nitrate-Nitrogen Octa-Slide Bare into the Octa Slide Viewer
Insert test tube into the Octa-Slide viewer
Match sample color to color standard. Record as ppm nitrate-nitrogen
Rinse out test tube and dispose of foil tablet containers.
If the color is stronger than the highest reading on the OctaSlide Viewer, Dilute the water sample
with 9 parts of distilled water and 1 part of the water sample. Multiply your results by a factor of 10.
Phosphate 0– 2 ppm











Use Phosphate test kit 3121
Place the Axial Reader (2071) on the table top with open side facing operator. The mirror should be
facing operator
Position the Octet Comparator in the open slot of the Axial Reader with labels facing the operator.
The bottom of the Comparator should be flat on the table surface.
Fill two test tubes to the 10 mL line. These are the blanks. Fill the third tube with sample water
according to the test tube procedure instructions.
Treat one test tube according to the following procedures:
Use a 1.0 ml pipette to add 1.0 ml of Phosphate Acid Reagent (6282). Cap and mix.
Use a 0.1 g. spoon (0699) to add one level measure of Phosphate Reducing Reagent (6283). Cap
and mix until dissolved.
Wait 5 minutes. While you are waiting, clean the spoon and pipette.
Insert test tube into Phosphate Comparator (3115). Match sample color to color standard. Record
as ppm phosphate.
Rinse test tube.
If the color is stronger than the highest reading on the OctaSlide Viewer, Dilute the water sample
with 9 parts of distilled water and 1 part of the water sample. Multiply your results by a factor of 10.
86
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was measured on site by your teacher when collecting the samples.
Sample
1
Sample
2
Sample
3
Sample
4
Sample
5
Turbidity
(cm)
Nitrate
nitrogen
(ppm)
Phosphate
(ppm)
Dissolved
Oxygen
(ppm)
(taken at
the site)
ConclusionsFor each hypothesis, answer the following:
a. Did the data support your hypothesis?
b. Based upon the test results, refine your hypothesis about the water quality in Balboa Lake.
c. What further tests should you want to make in order to support your new hypothesis?
87
88
Water Use Survey
Part 1- How much water does your family use?
1. To answer this question, obtain a water bill. What is your household daily
average?_____________ gallons
2. How many people are in your household?_______________
3. What is average use per person in your family?_____________gallons
4. In California, there is an average of 150 gallons delivered per person per day. How does your
family compare?_________________________
5. If your family is significantly higher or lower than the California average, what factors do you
think are responsible?
Part 2- Your Shower
1. Run your shower
2. Place a bucket and collect the water for ½ minute. (note, if your bucket is not large enough, you
may have to adjust to ¼ minute)
3. Determine how much water was collected in ½ minute in gallons (there are 4 quarts to a gallon)
Multiply by 2. Your shower delivers water at ____________ gallons/minute
4. Time yourself as you take a typical shower. Don’t forget to include the time the shower runs as
the water warms up _________ minutes
5. How often do you shower? (use a fraction if you shower every other or every third
day)________
6. How much water do you average per day by showering?_______________ gallons/day
7. If you want to decrease the water use from showering, you have a number of options. Name at
least three reasonable options.
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90
Unit: Geology and Waste
Reading:
Chapter 12 Text
Section 12-1 through 12-6
Chapter 17 Text
Section 17-1 through 17-9
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Cookie Mining Lab
Worksheets:
Plate Tectonics Worksheet (optional)
Toxic Waste Research Questions
Yucca Mountain Debate
Simple Math for Geniuses
91
Geology and Waste Review Sheet
Geological History
 Four major eras of earth
 Stromatolites and Oxygen revolution
 Ages of trilobites, dinosaurs, and mammals
 Human history
Plate Tectonics
 Layers of earth
 Lithosphere vs. asthenosphere
 Theory of Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics
 Distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes
Minerals, Rocks, and Mining
 Rock cycle (minerals vs. rocks)
 Igneous vs. Sedimentary vs. Metamorphic rocks
 Ores, gangue, tailings
 Principle of Diminishing Returns
 Mining and Purification Techniques, grinding, smelting, concentrating
 Placer deposits
 Coal
 Acid Mine Drainage
 Per capita mining levels in US
 Mining Laws and Regulations (RCRA, CERCLA/Superfund, Mining Law of 1872)
Solid Waste
 Types, percentages, and amounts of solid waste
 Options for dealing with solid waste (incineration, landfills, recycling) – pros and cons
 How to construct landfills
 What we throw away in MSW
Recycling
 What are the 4 R’s
 How recycling can help (relate to other units this year)
 Benefits of reuse
 Primary (closed loop) vs. Secondary (open loop)
 Pre-consumer vs. Post-consumer waste
 What makes a material easy to recycle
Hazardous Waste
 What makes waste hazardous
 What can we do with it
 Dangers of toxic waste dumps (ex. Love Canal, Bhopal, Exxon Valdez, Deep Horizon platform)
 How can we clean it up
 Superfund Act a.k.a. CERCLA (what is it, how does it work, how useful is it)
 Yucca Mountain
o Why is it important
o What might be stored there
o Pros and cons
o Desirable characteristics
Lessons from:
 Poison in the Rockies
 Cookie Mining Lab
 Current Mining Issue
92
Yucca Mountain Questions
Find current information to answer the following questions:
Where is it (be specific)?
What are some of the problems that have slowed progress at Yucca Mountain?
What is the current status of the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository?
Is it a good location? Are there dangers to the site? Are there better sites available?
Will it be able to do the job?
Are the benefits of nuclear energy (fewer air pollutants, less dependence on foreign oil, etc.) worth the
costs (environmental and economic)?
93
94
Geologic Time Scale
For your reference
4.6 BYA Earth forms
3.5 BYA first known life on earth
anaerobic bacteria- atmosphere is methane and hydrogen sulfide
3 BYA chemosynthetic bacteria
2.5 BYA iron in the oceans settles out as iron oxide- this indicates that oxygen is more
atmosphere
with more O2- cyanobacteria begin to evolve to perform photosynthesis
2.3-2.4 BYA cellular respiration is believed to have first occurred.
prevalent in the
0.8 BYA first eukaryotes
570 MYA abundant fossils with hard parts—begin Paleozoic
550 MYA start Cambrian-trilobites
505 MYA end Cambrian-start Ordovician
438 MYA Glaciation
early fish
first land plants
408 MYA start Devonian
360 MYA start Carboniferous
early amphibians
286 MYA start Permian
early reptiles
Pangea forms
mass extinction
245 MYA start Mesozoic-Triassic
early mammals
Dinosaurs abundant
208 MYA start Jurassic
150 MYA Archaeopteryx
144 MYA start Cretaceous
flowering plants
67 MYA big impact start Cenozoic
AGE of MAMMALS
2 MYA H. Habilis
0.5 MYA H. Sapien
95
96
Cookie Mining Lab
Cookie Mining: The purpose of the activity is to provide an introduction to the economics of mining.
This is accomplished through purchasing land areas and mining equipment, as well as paying for mining
operations and reclamation. In return the “miners” receive money for the ore mined. One of the goals is
to make as much money as possible.
The general definition of “ore” is a naturally occurring material from which minerals of economic
value can be extracted at a profit. In this exercise, the chocolate chip is the ore. The worthless rock that
is associated with the ore and must be separated from the ore is the gangue. The rest of the cookie is the
gangue.
Instructions:
1. Each miner may apply for credit to start their mining operation.
2. Cookie mines for sale: Mines and values may vary
3. Following the purchase of a cookie (land area), the miner places the cookie on the graph paper
and traces the outline of the cookie. The miner then counts each square that falls inside the circle.
Each partial square counts as a full square. Miners will attempt to reclaim the land to the original
shape after the ore has been removed.
4. Each cookie will be massed
5. Mining equipment for rental
a. Flat toothpick
$2.00
b. Round toothpick
$5.00
c. Paper clip
$6.00
d. If any of the above is returned broken, an extra fee of double the rental price will be
charged
No miner may use their fingers to hold the cookie. The only items which can touch the cookie are the
mining tools and the paper the cookie is sitting on.
6. Mining and Reclamation time costs: $2.00/minute
7. Sale of the chocolate chips brings $10/gram. Chips with 25% to 50% impurities will be worth
only $5/gram.
8. When mining is completed, count and mass the chips.
9. After the cookie has been mined, the remaining rock, gangue, must be placed back into the circled
area on the graph paper. This can only be done using the mining tools. No fingers or hands may
touch the cookie.
10. Count up the number of squares covered by the gangue. If the gangue covers more squares than
the original cookie, a reclamation cost of $1.00 per extra square will be assessed.
97
Mining Data Sheet
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Cookie/Mine Brand
name
Price of Cookie/Mine
Mass of Cookie (g)
Mining Equipment
Flat toothpick ($2)
Round Toothpick ($5)
Paperclip ($6)
Broken equipment?
Time Mining and
reclaiming (minutes)
Cost for mining time
($2.00/minute)
Subtotal of above
expenses
Mass of chocolate
collected
Income from chocolate
($10/gram)
Net = income from
chocolate – subtotal of
expenses
Reclamation Fees
($1/square)
Profit after fees paid =
Net – Reclamation fees
% Chocolate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Answer these questions on a separate sheet of paper and bring it with you to your quiz.
1. Were the minerals evenly distributed throughout the cookie mines? Is this a good model for a real
mine?
2. Did you leave any chips behind in the cookie? Why or why not? Is this a good model for a real mine?
3. Were you able to restore the land? Why or why not?
4. Do you think the mining process is faster when you know in advance that the land must be restored?
Explain
5. Do you think that legislation requiring the restoration of the land makes mining more expensive?
6. The average copper ore mined in 1900 was 5% copper by weight. Today the average copper ore is
0.5% copper by weight. What factors could account for this difference?
7. What changes in your mining technique would have resulted in more profit?
98
Plate Tectonics Worksheet
1. On the diagram below label, the continental crust, oceanic crust, upper mantle, lithosphere, and the
asthenosphere.
If you have trouble, refer to the same worksheet on the website. It’s in color!
3. The three above diagrams are all convergent boundaries. Write one sentence next to each diagram
explaining what is happening .
99
4. Why are volcanoes present on the diagram below?
5. Where would you find this process happening today?
6.a. In the diagram below, label the divergent boundary, the ocean-ocean convergent boundary, and the
ocean-continent convergent boundary (note the arrows)
b. Which two types of boundary are not clearly labeled or are missing?______________________
100
7. Explain the pattern of earthquakes shown below.
101
102
Toxic Waste Research Questions
You are responsible for answering the questions about each of the following
1. Dioxins- (check the textbook)
What are dioxins? What are they used for? How are humans likely to encounter dioxins? What are the
health effects of dioxins? How can exposure to dioxins be prevented? Do plastics emit dioxins when
they are placed in a microwave?
2. ChlorineWhat compounds containing chlorine pose health effects?
What are the health effects?
How should we deal with the problem?
How is chlorine related to dioxins and PCBs?
3. Lead- (check the textbook)
What are the most common sources?
What are the human health effects?
How should we deal with the problem?
4. PCBsWhat are PCBs, and what have PCBs been used for?
How are humans likely to come in contact with PCBs
What are the health effects of PCB contamination?
How are PCBs presently being controlled?
5. MercuryWhat are the main sources for Mercury?
What are the human health effects?
How are mercury contaminants reduced or mitigated?
6. BPA’s (Bisphenol A’s)
What are BPA’s?
Where do they come from?
What effects do they have on human health?
How can exposure be reduced?
103
104
Unit: Energy
You will need your gas and electric bill for the NEXT unit (AIR). Get them NOW.
Reading:
Chapter 13 Text
Section 13-1 through 13-8
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Light Bulb Lab
ENERGY LAB
Worksheets:
Unit Fraction Method Worksheet
Household Electricity Use Worksheet
Energy Efficiency Worksheet
Swimming Pool Energy Worksheet
R- Value Worksheet
Energy Review Problems Worksheet
Ethanol as an Alternative Fuel for Automobiles Worksheet (optional)
105
Energy Review Sheet
Energy







Laws of Thermodynamics
Efficiency equation
Net useful Energy Yield
Relative efficiencies and energy yields for common resources/mechanisms
How an electric generator and turbine work
Cogeneration
Units of energy
o Calorie
o BTU
o Kilowatt-Hour
o Joule
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
 Fossil Fuels (Petroleum, Natural Gas, Coal, Nuclear)
o Pros and Cons
o How they’re formed and mined
 Relative CO2 Emissions
 Types of Coal: Peat, Lignite, Bituminous, Anthracite
 Fraction Distillation Method for Petroleum
 Oil Shale and Tar Sands
Renewable Energy Resources
 Advantages and Disadvantages of all resources
 Hydropower
 Wind
 Geothermal
 Biomass (soil, liquid, and gas such as methane)
 How they work:
o Tidal and Wave power plant
o Freshwater and Salt Water solar ponds
o Ocean Thermal power plant
 Automotive alternatives
o Hybrid
o Hydrogen Fuel Cell
o Electric
 Solar
o Passive, Active (photovoltaic cells), and Solar Thermal Systems
o Uses (cooking, PVC, insulation coefficient - R)
Nuclear Power
 How a nuclear reaction works (Fission reactor, breeder reactor)
 Major components and functioning of a nuclear reactor
 Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power
 Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
 Yucca Mountain
 Nuclear Fusion
Energy Calculations
o Energy Efficiency, Swimming Pool, energy costs, conversion factors, light bulb lab, R-value
Lessons from:
 Oil on Ice Video
 The Big Energy Gamble Video
 Light Bulb Lab
106
In Class Writing Exercise
Your task is to research an environmental topic that is of interest to you, and to write a petition to
a government official, urging him or her to take a specific action. To receive full credit you need the
following:
 Letter addressed to a government official containing
 Request for a specific action
 Two to three supporting reasons
 The letter in its entirety should not be longer than one page, single spaced
 Stamped envelope (don’t seal it!!!)
 addressed to the official
 containing your return address
The Sierra Club site: http://www.sierraclub.org/legislativetracker/ will give you many ideas and plenty of
background on current legislative initiatives. However, you must write your own letter, rather than use
their sample letter, and you should include background information learned in class or from other sources
in addition to whatever you may find at the Sierra Club site, should you choose to use it.
This site from the Union of Concerned Scientists is also helpful in finding important issues that need
attention: http://ucsaction.org/ucsaction/home.html?qp_source=wacucs%5fheada
Write a Powerful Letter to elected officials:
These tips will help you write a persuasive letter:
 Keep it short.
Limit your letter to one page and one issue.
 Identify yourself and the issue.
In the first paragraph of your letter state who you are and what issue you are writing about. If you
are referring to a specific bill, identify it by number (e.g. H.R. 2372 or S. 1287).
 Focus on your main points.
Choose the three strongest points to support your argument and develop them clearly. Too much
information can distract from your position.
 Make it personal.
Tell your legislator why the issue matters to you and how it affects you, your family, and your
community. Make a connection to the legislator. Did you vote for her? Did you contribute to the
campaign?
 Ask for a reply.
Include your name and address on both your letter and envelope.
 Trust your voice.
Be polite and take a firm position in your letter. Be confident in your understanding of the issue
and remember that the legislator may know less than you. Thank elected officials when they vote
the way you want.
Tips on how to find elected officials on the next page…
107
Getting Connected:
Phone
Your Senator and Representative can be called via the U.S. Capitol Switchboard at 202-224-3121.
Write
Your Senator at U.S. Senate, Washington, DC 20510.
Your Representative at U.S. House of Representatives, Washington, DC 20515.
Look Them Up Online
Look up your Senator or Representative online at http://congress.nw.dc.us/congressorg/search.html
Contact the President
The White House
1600 Pennsylvania Avenue N.W.
Washington, DC 20500
Comment line: 202-456-1111
Fax: 202-456-2461
president@whitehouse.gov
108
Light Bulb Lab
Lighting
Lighting is something that we take for granted. In the past few years there has been a revolution
of sorts in lighting. Examine five different kinds of bulbs to compare the light produced & energy
cost .
Supplies:







25 watt incandescent light bulb
25 watt fluorescent light bulb
100 watt incandescent bulb
60 watt incandescent bulb
60 watt halogen bulb
Light meter (ft-Candles)
meter stick
Instructions
1. Measure & mark 0.5 meters from where the light bulb will be held. One student should hold
the light meter at this mark with the top pointing towards the bulb.
2. Repeat the measurement twice. Average the three readings
3. Repeat with each additional bulb.
Meter
reading
1
2
3
average
Lifetime
Cost/bul
b
25 watt
incandesce
nt
25 watt
fluoresce
nt
100 watt
incandesce
nt
60 watt
incandesce
nt
60
watt
haloge
n
1,000
hours
8,000
hours
1,000
hours
1,000
hours
$1.00
5.00
1.00
1.00
3,00
0
hour
s
5.00
Analysis: show work with every calculation
1. Use the following formula to calculate the increased brightness of the 25 watt fluorescent bulb
over the 25 watt incandescent bulb.
brightness of fluorescent bulb - brightness of incandescent bulb
brightness of incandescent bulb
X 100 = ___ _% brighter
2. The 25 watt fluorescent bulb claimed to put out as much light as the 100 watt incandescent.
What do your results show?
3. If the 60 watt incandescent light bulb is 5% efficient, what would be the efficiency of the 60
watt halogen bulb? Remember the input for both bulbs is the same.
109
4. Determine the cost of buying each of the light bulbs for 24,000 hours of use.
5. The cost of one kilowatt hour is $0.10. Compare the entire cost (the cost of the bulb(s) and the
electricity to power them) of using a 25 watt fluorescent bulb for 8,000 hours with the entire cost of using
a 100 watt incandescent bulb for 8,000 hours of light.
110
Unit Fraction Method Worksheet
The unit fraction method is an excellent way to complete mathematical calculations that involve
converting measurements of one unit type to another. For example, let’s determine the number of meters
in one mile.
5280 ft   .3048meters 
  1609meters

1 ft
 mile  

For the mile conversion, we needed to know how many feet are in a mile and how many meters are in
one foot. This is a simple example because most of us know that there are approximately 1600 meters in
a mile. However, other conversions can be more difficult.
1mile  
Let’s say we want to determine the amount of coal needed to heat a 500 ft2 room. In order to do this we
need to know a few things before we can complete the calculation. First, we need to know how much
energy (in BTU’s) is needed to heat 1 ft2 of the room. Let’s say that it takes 200 BTU’s to heat 1 ft2 of
 200 BTU 
space. We can write this as 
 . Then we need to know how much energy is contained in a set
2
 1 ft

amount of coal. Let’s say that 1 pound of coal produces 5,000 BTU’s. We can write this as
 5, 000 BTU 
 1 pound 

 or 
.
 5, 000 BTU 
 1 pound 
According to these simple conversions we can figure out the amount of coal need to heat the room by
simply multiplying the two conversion factors by the size of the room.
 200 BTU   1 pound 
500 ft 2   20 pounds




2
 1 ft
  5, 000 BTU 
111
1. Use the Unit Fraction Method to determine the number of seconds in one decade. We’ve started the
answer for you. Using scientific notation will be helpful.
 10 years 
 ...
 decade) 
1decade  
2. If there are 3.45 miles in a league and 0.00018 leagues per meter, how many meters would you travel
if you covered one hundred miles?
3. If there are 270,512 drams in one cubic meter and 1.55*10-5 hogsheads in a dram, how many cubic
meters of water are there in 10 hogsheads?
We will be using the unit fraction method as a way to keep track of the units in our energy conversion
calculations. Use the following conversion factors to answer the questions on the back of this sheet.
1 gallon of water = 8 lbs. of water
1kWH = 3,400 BTU’s
1BTU = the amount of energy to raise 1 lb. of water 1oF
1 calorie = the amount of energy to raise 1 ml of water 1oC.
1 liter = 0.2624 gallons
An average coal power plant produces 12 million kWH of electricity each day
An average solar power plant produces 10 million kWH of electricity each day.
1 lb. of coal can produce 5,000 BTU’s.
Coal is 5% sulfur by mass.
Coal costs $35 per ton on average
1 ton = 2,000 lbs.
1 cubic foot of natural gas can produce 1,000 BTU’s.
Natural gas is available at $5.00 per one thousand cubic feet.
112
4. How many pounds of coal are required to power an average electric plant each year?
5. Assume that a power plant uses 8.0*106 lbs of coal each day. Coal fired power plants generate
electricity by boiling water to create steam which spins a turbine. If the water source for a coal power
plant has an in initial temperature of 60oF, how many pounds of water are used by a power plant in one
day?
6. How much natural gas would be required to produce the same amount of energy as a single day at the
coal power plant?
7. How much does the coal cost to run the coal power plant for one day?
8. How much sulfur is produced by the coal power plant each day?
9. If the efficiency of the coal plant was increased by 10%, how would that impact the amount of sulfur
produced? HINT: use your answer in #8 to help.
113
114
Household Electricity Use Worksheet
Evaluation of Household Appliance Electricity Use
Part 1: Calculating operating cost for an appliance
In order to calculate the average operating cost for any electrical appliance you can use the
following formula:
kWh = (watts/1,000) x hours of operation
Cost = rate (cost/kWh) x kWh
Watts can usually be found on the appliance name plate. If the name plate lists amps: volts x amps
= watts
Example: How much does it cost to operate a portable electric heater? An electric heater wattage is
usually given on the unit itself, or with the literature that comes with it. An example is 1000 watts.
If you use the heater an average of 45 hours during winter months (1 /2 hour per day for the three
winter months). If the electric rate during the winter is $0.068 per kWh. So
kWh = 1,000 watts/ 1,000 x 45 hours = 45 kwh
cost = 45 kWh x .068/hour = $3.06
Now, if you have an 8 amp heater, the calculation changes just a bit:
8 amps x 120 volts household current = 960 watts price = .96 kW x 45 hours x $.068/kWh = $2.94
1. Chose an electrical appliance in your house, either a computer or a television set. Look at the
back of the appliance. You will either find the power in Watts, or the current in amps.
Appliance: ______________
power =________watts or current =______ amps
2. Unless you know otherwise, assume that the appliance is receiving 120 volts of household
current. In Los Angeles at this time the electric rate is $0.10 per kWh
3. Estimate the number of hours that the appliance is used in one month: ____ hours
4. Calculate the energy in kWh that is used to run your appliance for one month. Show your
calculations below
5. Calculate the cost per month of using the appliance.
6. Repeat the process for a different type of appliance. Show your work below (with units!)
115
Part 2:
Your assignment is to decrease your electricity use by at least 7% for one week. First determine
what you would use in a normal week then conserve energy for the second week. Describe in
detail what changes you made and how you obtained the data.
The Report:
It is important that you make some kind of measurement so that you can quantify the savings. The
most direct way to do this is to read your electricity meter. If this is not possible, then you need to
consult with your instructor about an alternative. The report comes in FOUR parts (A, B, C, D).
Your Electric Meter
Read the dials from left to right and write
down, in the same order, the last number that
the pointer has passed. The result is your
meter reading.
If the pointer is directly on a number, record
the next lower number unless the pointer on
the dial to the right has passed 0. The
reading at the right is 7025
A. READING YOUR METER - Due on ____________________
To be certain that you are reading the electrical meter correctly, you are to make a first reading
and report the result. You are to record here the appearance of the 4 or 5 dials on your meter.
Then
1. TAKE A PHOTO OF THE METER
2. WRITE in all of the numbers on the dials,
2. use arrows to show the direction each pointer moves,
3. and show the positions of the pointers as they appear.
4. Then write down the number of kilowatt hours that this reports, and finally record the time and
date upon which this reading was made. USE THE DIAGRAM ON THE NEXT PAGE.
116
DIALS:
1. Reading = _________________ kWh
Time: ______________ ; Date: ________________
B. NORMAL USAGE (one week later)- Due on_______________
Record the second reading of your electrical meter
DIALS:
2. Reading = _________________ kWh
Time: ______________ ; Date: ________________
Report here the number of kilowatt-hours used during a week of normal electrical usage.
If the time between your meter readings was not one week (to within about four hours) then you
will need to calculate what would be used in a day, and then change it to a week. Show your
work.
3. Amount of electricity used during the first week = _________________
C. FINAL REPORT - Due on _________________
Record the third reading of your electrical meter
DIALS:
Reading = ___________________ kWh
Time: ______________ ; Date: ________________
Amount of energy used during the second week = ___________________
117
CALCULATIONS: Show all work
(There are approximately 101 million households in the United States)
(The cost of 1 kWh is approximately $0.10, and one KWH produces 1.5 lbs of CO2)
1. Energy savings from the first week to the second week (as determined by meter readings)
2. % decrease in energy use
3. Energy savings in one year
4. Money savings in one week and in one year.
5. Energy saved if 10% of the households in the United States did the same for one year
6. A typical coal-burning power plant produces 3.5 billion kwh per year. How many power plants
could shut down if 10% of the U.S. households did the same you did?
7. Lbs of CO2 saved if 10% of the households in the United States did the same for one year.
8. How did the changes affect your family and would you consider maintaining these changes?
118
Energy Efficiency Worksheet
Show all calculations with units
1. 3.2 tons of coal is used to provide enough heat to bring the temperature of 2.0 x l05 gallons of
water up 300 F. The heat value of one ton of coal is 2.5 x107 BTU/ton. One gallon of water
weighs 8 lbs and BTU’s are calculated by multiplying pounds of water by their change in
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
a. What is the input energy?
b. What is the useful energy (output)?
c. What is the efficiency?
2. A cord of wood is used in a wood stove/fireplace to heat a house. If the transfer from the wood
to the house is 70% efficient, how much heat will be delivered? The heat in a cord of wood is 2.0
x 107 BTU.
b. Where did the waste energy go? Look at a fireplace to figure this out.
119
3. a. Natural gas, with the heat content of 1030 BTU/ft3 is used to produce electricity.
If 4.5 x 106 ft3 of natural gas is used, and the conversion is 65% efficient, how many kWh of
electricity can be generated? One kWh = 3413 BTU.
b. If the electricity produced above is used to power an electric stove that has 79% efficiency,
how many BTUs can be delivered by the stove?
120
Swimming Pool Energy Worksheet
Harvard-Westlake School
Show all pertinent measurements, conversion factors and calculations if you would like to earn
full credit for this assignment
For the month of January, 1997, Harvard-Westlake purchased 490,900 cubic feet of natural gas to
heat the pool.
1. The heat in one cubic foot of gas is 1,021 BTUs. How much heat was purchased?
2. A British Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of energy required to heat one pound of water
1°F. Also, it is equivalent to 252 calories. One calorie is the amount of energy required to heat 1
gram of water 1°C. The Harvard-Westlake pool holds 325,000 gallons of water. One gallon of
water weighs 8 pounds. Determine the number of pounds of water in the Harvard-Westlake pool.
3. If the conversion of natural gas to heat in the pool were 100% efficient, what change in
temperature would be produced?
121
4. The pool is kept at 80°F and the average temperature during January is 58°F. How much
energy is needed to raise the temperature of the pool?
5. How much heat is lost in the conversion from chemical energy to heat in the pool?
6. What is the efficiency of heating the pool?
7. The gas furnace is 80% efficient at converting gas energy to thermal energy in the water. How
much energy is initially absorbed by the water?__________
8. Heat is lost from the water to the air, despite the fact that the pool cover is employed most of
the day. What is the efficiency of the pool cover? Hint: if the cover was 100% efficient, all of
the energy initially absorbed by the water would be retained, but it’s not….
122
R-Value Worksheet
One of the most economical ways to reduce heat loss or gain in buildings is by using appropriate
insulation during construction or by retrofitting afterwards. Most insulating materials are rated as
to their insulating effectiveness by a unit called an R-value, which indicates a materials resistance
to the flow of heat through it. 1/R is a measure of the amount of heat energy (in British Thermal
Units) that would pass through a piece of material 1 square foot in area in 1 hour when the
temperature is 1 degree Fahrenheit higher on one side of the material than on the other. If very
little heat flowed from one area to the other, then the material between the areas would be a good
insulator, for it would have a large R-value. One way to represent the relationship is:
1 =
Heat(BTUs)______
or R =
Area(ft2) t(F) time (hour)
R
Area(ft2) t(F) time (hour)
Heat (BTU)
British Thermal Units are usually abbreviated to BTUs, and are equal to the amount of heat
energy necessary to raise one pound of water 1 degree F ( or = 252 calories = 1056 joules = 1.056
kilojoules)
Using the same formula, you can determine the amount of heat that has passed through a barrier
by
Heat (BTU) = Area(ft2) t(F) time (hour
R
BTUs in various fuels
1 gallon of fuel oil: 145,000
1 gallon of gasoline: 125,000
1 cubic foot of natural gas; 1031
1 ton of coal: 25,000,000
1 cord of wood: 20,000,000
1kWh = 3413 BTU
1. An R-value measuring apparatus maintains a one degree F difference between two
compartments separated by a single pane of glass measuring 2ft x 2 ft. In one hour 2.2 BTUs
move across the glass. What is the R-value for this material? Show your work!
2. This apparatus is used again, but this time a 4.0 ft2 piece of 1” thick Styrofoam is used. Since
it was lunch hour, the trial ran for two hours, during which .72 BTUs of energy moved across the
Styrofoam. What is the R-value for 1” thick Styrofoam? Show your work!
123
3. Except for the small countries of Luxembourg, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman, North America uses
more energy per person than all other parts of the world. This is true because historically we have
always had abundant energy in the form of wood, coal, and oil. Because we have had a large
supply, there has been less interest in developing ways to use energy more efficiently. There are
several categories of personal energy consumption that we all have some control over: heating
and air conditions, heating water, lighting, transportation, and the purchase and use of efficient
electrical appliances.
One of the major ways that energy leaves or enters buildings is through windows. A single-pane
window has an R-value of 0.90.
a. An average house in the Valley has about 1,800 sq. feet of floor space, and 20 windows
averaging 3.0 x 4.0 feet. If the average daytime outdoor temperature was 50.0 degrees F and the
house thermostat was set at 70.0 degrees, how many BTUs would be lost through the windows
during the 10.0 hours of daylight?
b. How many BTUs would be saved if the thermostat was set for 60 degrees?
c. In the summer season the average valley day-time temperature is 80 degrees. If the air
conditioner were set for 65 degrees, how many BTUs would be drawn into the house (and need to
be “removed”) in one 12 hour day?
d. ...in the 100 days that average this temperature?
e. Compare to a similar house with double pane glass (R-value of 1.85). How many BTUs would
be saved (in the 100 days)by installing this glass in the house?
f. How many kWh of electricity (assuming 100% efficiency)
124
Energy Review Problems Worksheet
show all calculations with units
1/R = Energy (BTUs)
area (ft2)time (hr)∆T(°F)
Power(watts) = current(amps) x voltage(volts)
BTU = energy needed to raise the temp. of 1 pound of water 1°F
1 gallon weights 8 pounds
1 cubic foot of gas contains 1031 BTUs
1 kWh = 3413 BTU
1 ton of coal contains 2.5 x 107 BTUs
1 MW (megawatt) = 1000 kW (kilowatts)
1. How many kWhs of energy could be generated by a coal burning power plant that burned 250
tons of coal and was 40% efficient?
2. How much natural gas must be burned in order to produce 52 MWhs of electricity if the power
plant was 65% efficient?
3. How many pounds of water could raise in temperature 20°F by the 90% efficient burning of
30.0 cubic feet of natural gas?
4. a. The R-value of a hot water heater insulation blanket is 6.7 and covers an area of 25 square
feet. How many BTUs will it save for every hour that it prevents 1°F of temperature
change?__________
b. How many cubic feet of gas will that save in one year?
125
5. What is the efficiency of a gas-burning furnace that heats 5,000 lbs of water 25°F by burning
210 cubic feet of natural gas?
6. 7.0 tons of coal are burned to generate 3.6 x 104 kWh of electricity. What is the efficiency of
the generator?
7. You replace one 75-watt incandescent light bulb with fluorescent light bulb that gives the
same amount of light by drawing only 20 watts. You use the light bulb for an average of 4 hours a
day.
a. How many kWhs of energy would you save in one day?
b. How many kWhs of energy would you save in one year?
c. The cost of one kWh is $0.10. How much money does the fluorescent light bulb save in one
year?
8. a. How much power is produced by a solar cell that produces 0.06 amps of current and has a
voltage of 0.75 volts?
b. if the solar cell had an area of 20 cm2 and collected sunlight when the solar constant (the
amount of energy available per cubic centimeter) was 0.08 watts/cm2, what was the efficiency of
the solar cell?
c. How many solar cells would it take to run a 60-watt bulb?
126
9. If the efficiency of a coal-burning power plant is 65% and the efficiency of energy
transmission is 95%, and the efficiency of an electric stove is 85%, how many BTUs of heat
could be produced by an electric stove after 0.50 tons of coal have been burned?
10. How many cubic feet of gas must be burned in a 80% efficient pool heater in order to
increase the temperature of a 200,000 gallon pool from 60°F to 75°F?
127
128
Unit: Air Pollution and Climate Change
GET YOUR HOUSEHOLD GAS AND ELECTRIC BILL (THESE ARE TWO DIFFERENT BILLS)
Reading:
Chapter 15 Text
Section 15-1 through 15-7
Chapter 16 Text
Section 16-1 through 16-7
ONLINE READING QUIZ DUE DATE:__________
Labs:
Examining Evidence for Climate Change Lab
Ozone Lab (optional)
CO2 Lab
Worksheets:
Carbon Dioxide Diet Exercise
Kyoto Protocol Questions
Clean Air Act Worksheet
Global Warming and Sea Level Worksheet
Simple Math for Geniuses
129
Air Pollution and Climate Change Review Sheet
Global Warming
 Greenhouse Effect (how does it work)
 Greenhouse Gases (what are they, how are they produced)
 Types of Evidence
 Forcings and Feedbacks (solar output, albedo, volcanic ash, melting tundra, etc.)
 Possible Consequences
 Sources and Sinks for CO2
 Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Credits
 Relative Temperature Increases throughout History
 Thermohaline Circulation
 Possible Responses by Humans
Air Pollution
 Sources (Natural and Anthropogenic)
 Types of Pollutants (Primary and Secondary)
 NOx Reactions
 Factors Which Increase Air Pollution
 Thermal Inversions
 Photochemical vs. Gray (Industrial) Smog
 LA and Smog
 Acid Deposition (dry vs. wet)
Ozone and Ozone Depleting Compounds (ODC’s)
 Types and Locations of Ozone (what is its purpose)
 Natural Formation and Destruction of ozone
 Anthropogenic destruction of ozone
o CFC’s, halons, furans, and SF6, CCl4
 Effects of Thinning Ozone
 Details of Ozone “Hole” (characteristics, location, changes)
 Government Regulations of CFC’s (Montreal, London, Copenhagen)
Skin Cancer
 Keratoses
 Carcinomas
 Melanomas
 ABCD’s of Melanoma
Indoor Air Pollution
 Comparison with Outdoor Air Pollution
 Top Three Indoor Air Pollutants
 Where Indoor Air Pollutants can Lurk
 What to do about Indoor Air Pollution
Air Pollution Prevention
 Control vs. Prevention Solutions
 Industrial Control Options
 Catalytic Converters (and other options to reduce automobile emissions)
 Control of Acid Deposition
 Government Regulations of Pollution (Energy Policy Conservation Act, Clean Air Act, Kyoto Protocol)
Homework and Articles
 Lessons from CO2 Diet and Global Warming Problems
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Measuring U.S. Climate Change
The two key factors in determining climate are temperature and precipitation. We will look at
their fluctuations over the last century or so using the data on the website below.
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/cag3.html
1. Select the ‘Statewide’ Button. Realize that the data can also be analyzed on different scales
(national, regional, etc.)
2. Choose any state by clicking on it or the list at the bottom of the window.
3. First select the ‘Mean Temperature’. Eventually we will also look at precipitation data for the
same state and time period.
4. Also be sure to select ‘Annual’ in the Period Menu.
5. Leave all of the other settings as they are and click the ‘Submit’ button. It can take a while for the
graph and information to load when many people are accessing the site simultaneously so be
patient.
6. When the information appears, record below the ‘Annual Trend’ for the time period shown.
Remember, we want the Trend not the average temperature.
7. Go back to the last page and select ‘Precipitation’. Then click on the ‘Submit’ button to display
the precipitation information.
8. When the information appears, record below the ‘Annual Trend’ for the period shown.
Remember, we want the Trend not the average precipitation.
9. Now repeat the above process for three more states. Choose states from a variety of
areas/regions.
State 1
State 2
State 3
State 4
Averages
Temperature
Trend
Precipitation
Trend
According to your results, what is happening to the climate (temp. and precip.) in the United States?
Is there a constant relationship between temperature change and precipitation change? If so, what is
it? If not, why not?
Let’s change the scale at which we examine climate change in the U.S. Go back to the original page
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/cag3/cag3.html and select the ‘National’ Button.
Now create a chart of the annual temperature and precipitation data for the entire U.S.
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What do the data suggest about the climate trends for the entire country? Don’t forget to look at both
temperature and precipitation data.
Does this analysis agree or disagree with the data you collected on a state level. Why or why not?
In the end, do the data prove, disprove, or support the assertion that global warming is occurring?
EXPLAIN why or why not in specific detail?
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Measuring and Interpreting
Tropospheric Ozone
Background:
There are two types of ozone (O3). Stratospheric ozone is found high up in earth’s atmosphere
and does the vitally important job of absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation before it reaches earth’s
surface. It’s the ‘good’ ozone. Without stratospheric ozone, biological molecules would be “cooked” by
the penetrating UV radiation and living organisms would suffer as a result. This lab focuses on the other
kind of ozone- tropospheric ozone.
Tropospheric ozone is a potential human health threat because of its highly reactive nature and
ability to form other tertiary pollutants. This ground-level ozone or 'bad' ozone is formed when nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), collectively called 'ozone precursors', react with
sunlight. Emissions from car exhausts, power plants and industrial facilities are the major sources of NOx
and VOC. Another key component in ozone formation is the presence of sunlight. Given the right
conditions, this tropospheric ozone can ultimately react to form photochemical smog- the brown air
we’ve come to know in Los Angeles.
Procedure:
In this lab we will monitor tropospheric ozone concentrations over the period of several days to
determine if any patterns develop. We will be using “badges” that change color when exposed to ozone
and a device (called a Zikua ozone meter) that interprets that color change. Badges will be exposed to
ambient air for periods of one hour after which they will be evaluated using the Zikua ozone meter.
When one badge has been measured, another badge will be exposed to the ambient air for the next hour.
This will continue throughout an 8 hour day for three days. We will also leave one badge exposed for all
8 hours of the day to determine the total daily exposure of ozone. All ozone levels will be recorded on an
excel spreadsheet for later anaylsis.
Given the above information and your understanding of tropospheric ozone formation, create a
hypothesis about ozone concentrations over the period of an 8 hour day. Assume that we have a typically
sunny, clear, and warm spring day.
Hypothesis:
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Once we have collected the ozone measurements for three days, you should be able to complete the
following.
1. Construct a graph that charts ozone levels for each 8 hour day. Put all three or four days on the
same graph and label it accordingly (axes and legend). Each data point should be an average of
the two readings taken at each time.
Plotting only the data points (an X-Y scatter) makes it difficult to interpret the daily trends.
How could you illustrate or show the trends more clearly? DO SO on your graph either before or
after you print the graph. Remember: Your graph should be constructed so that you can see how
ozone levels changed over the period of a day and how each separate day compares to the others.
a. Are there any patterns to ozone formation over the period of a day? If so, what are they?
b. Is there any discrepancy between the data for the 3 different days? How well do the data
from each day agree with the other days?
2. Calculate the average hourly ozone concentration for the 3 days. That means, find the average
0800 reading, the 0900 reading, etc.. Plot these averages on a graph so you can see how the
average ozone levels changed over time. Include a ‘best fit’ curve.
a. Does this graph change your interpretation of ozone fluctuations over an 8 hour day? If
so, why? If not, why not?
b. Which graph is better at illustrating the fluctuations in ozone levels? Explain why you
believe the graph to be ‘better’.
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3. How do the 8 hour total measurements help us understand ozone formation patterns?
4. Compare our results to your original hypothesis. Does the data support your hypothesis?
Explain.
5. How do our result compare with the Air Quality Index Chart that your teacher gave you?
Note: Unhealthy levels are >150 and Very Unhealthy is >200
Check out this link for some helpful hints: http://airnow.gov/index.cfm?action=aqibroch.aqi#intro
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The Carbon Dioxide Diet Exercise
This requires a household gas and electric bill- GET THEM!!
When we pay for any product we expect the price to include the cost of materials and
labor. The price also includes the cost of the energy that is used to make and ship the product.
There is an additional charge for the cost of environmental regulations that must be met during
the manufacture and use of the product. Many products contribute to your lifestyle for a relatively
short time, and when you no longer want or need them you must pay the cost of their disposal.
Environmental regulations limit the amount of certain waste products released into the air
or water, but there are no regulations that limit the release of carbon dioxide. It is simply released
into the air, and there is no charge for its disposal. The amount of carbon dioxide injected into the
air is directly related to the energy used in the mining, processing, manufacture, transport, sale,
use, and disposal of the products we buy. Every day far more carbon dioxide pours into the
atmosphere than plants and algae can use in the process of photosynthesis, so the level of carbon
dioxide in the earth's atmosphere is rising.
Until scientists began to study climate change, carbon dioxide was not thought of as a pollutant.
Now, computerized climate models show that too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can
create major changes that will impact our lives. If scientists are correct, the environmental
changes caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will be very costly.
William Cline, of the Institute for International Economics in Washington, DC, predicts
that a doubling of carbon dioxide levels will cost the US economy $60 billion a year by the
middle of the 21st century. If the level of carbon dioxide continues to increase, the predicted cost
may eventually reach $355 billion a year.
A look at the possible future economic impact caused by increasing levels of carbon
dioxide is troubling. To reduce the threats to the environment and the economy, we must reduce
the production of carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide emissions are directly related to the
products that we buy and use, our actions can help reduce these emissions. A reduction in carbon
dioxide emissions will require a change in our lifestyle. How far are you willing to go to
participate in a nationwide carbon dioxide diet?
Procedure:
Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide you could save by taking the actions suggested below.
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1. CO2 from driving.
To calculate the mileage you drive, write down the mileage on your/your family’s car. First fill up
the gas tank and set the trip meter to 0. When the tank is empty, or after a week (whichever comes
first), fill the tank again, and note the gallons purchased and the miles traveled per unit time.
Initial date____________, initial odometer reading________________________
Final date_____________, final odometer reading_________________________
Miles traveled ____________
Gallons used (final purchase) ___________
Days ________ Why is this important to know?
Calculate average miles per gallon ___________
Cars produce approximately 20 pounds of carbon dioxide for each gallon of gas used.
Calculate the number of pounds of CO2 produced by your car in one day.
Total pounds of CO2 that your car produces per year from driving____________
If you carpool, what is your personal contribution per
year?_____________________________
2. Using Electricity
How many people are living in your house?______
Find the average daily use in kWh _____________ (if the bill does not directly state average daily
use, use the bill to calculate the amount)
How many kWh does your family use in one year? ____________
Although it depends upon the source of electricity, for coal-fired power plants produce the most
CO2, while hydroelectric plants produce none, a general guideline is that using one kWh of
electricity produces 1.5 lbs of Carbon Dioxide.
Calculate the amount of CO2 your family produces in one year from using electricity
Total Pounds of Carbon Dioxide produced per year_________________,
Since you have other family members, how many pounds per person?________________
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3. Natural gas use and CO2 production by burning natural gas for heat, cooking, and hot
water
Obtain your family’s gas bill.
Find the average daily use in therms _____________
How many therms does your family use in one year? ____________
Burning one therm of natural gas produces 11 lbs of Carbon Dioxide.
Calculate CO2 produced in one year from natural gas ______________
Total Pounds of Carbon Dioxide produced by your family in one year___________
Since you have other family members, how many pounds per person?_____

Total Impact of YOUR Personal Carbon Dioxide Diet
1. Driving: _______________ pounds
2. Electricity: _______________ pounds
3. Natural Gas: _______________ pounds
total ___________ pounds of CO2 per person



There are 300 million people in the United States. If all of them produced as much CO2 as you
do, how much CO2 would the United States produce by domestic use in one
year?________________ (note that this number does not include industrial and agricultural
sources of CO2)
For each category, state two reasonable and specific changes in your lifestyle that would
result in less CO2 produced.
THIS IS THE IMPORTANT PART OF THE EXERCISE. PLEASE COME UP WITH
REALISTIC AND THOUGHTFUL MEASURES BEYOND THE OBVIOUS.
1. Driving
(cont’d)
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2. Electricity
3. Natural Gas
What are the external costs to owning a hybrid vehicle and are these any different from a
traditional vehicle?
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Kyoto Protocol Questions
Using both information discussed in class and other references, answer the following questions in as
much detail as possible:
1. What is the purpose of the Kyoto Protocol?
2. What categories of Countries have both signed and ratified the Protocol?
3. What important countries have not ratified the Protocol?
4. Why have the above countries not ratified the Protocol?
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5. What are some major problems with the Protocol and how might the Protocol be improved?
6. What is your opinion of the Protocol and the U.S.’s involvement? Support your opinion with
specific arguments.
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Global Warming and Sea Level Worksheet
Most authorities suggest that global warming will cause the sea level to rise as polar
regions warm and polar ice melts. However, others assert that warming the poles will result in
more snow, thus a greater accumulation of ice, and not melting. But there is one effect that can be
easily evaluated arithmetically: the impact on sea level resulting from warming the water. The
coefficient of thermal expansion (c.t.e.; also referred to as coefficient of cubic expansion) of
seawater is approximately 0.00019 per degree Celsius. This simply means that for each °C
increase in the temperature of a given amount of seawater, the volume of the water will expand by
this fraction. Since ocean basins are constrained by their bottoms and “sides” the only way to go
is up. Up means onto land that is presently above sea level, and this could result in extensive
coastal flooding.
To calculate how an increase in seawater temperature would affect the sea level, simply multiply
the average ocean depth (3,850 m) in centimeters by the c.t.e., multiplied by the number of
degrees of temperature increase. The resulting number is the expansion in 3 directions, but the
ocean can only expand in one direction, so multiply the answer by 3 to determine the rise of sea
level.
1. How much would each °C increase in seawater temperature cause the sea level to rise? Express
your answer in centimeters and feet.(30 cm = 1 ft). SHOW WORK
2. Evaluate the impact of a 0.5°C and a 2°C increase in seawater temperature on coastal
communities such as Virginia Beach, Virginia, where 400,000 people live in an area that is at 4
feet above sea level.
3. The U.S. has 5% of the world’s population but emits about 22% of the total greenhouse gases released.
Do you think Americans have a responsibility to prevent a rise in sea level or to address the effects
caused by the build-up of these gases? In a paragraph, state your reasons and discuss. If you think that
Americans do have a responsibility, describe what we could do to either decrease the effect or assist
people affected by the increase in sea level. Be specific and explain your choices.-(use the back of this
sheet to answer.)
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