Wastewater Management in the Malawian Cities and impacts on downstream communities: A case
study of Blantyre City.
Chaonamwene, G. C*1, Mwanuzi F.L2, Chipofya, V.3
1
Malawi Bureau of Standards, P O Box 946. Blantyre. MALAWI
University of Dar es Salaam, Water Resources Engineering Department, P.O. Box 35131,
TANZANIA
3
University of Malawi, The Malawi Polytechnic, P/Bag 303, Department of Civil Engineering,
Blantyre, MALAWI
2
*Corresponding author email: gchaonamwene@gmail.com; chaonamwene@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the impact of wastewater management in Blantyre City on the downstream
livelihoods of Mudi, Limbe and Naperi rivers as receiving bodies. The physico-chemical
characteristics of effluents from main wastewater treatment plants and river waters at community
abstraction points in Blantyre city were assessed and analysed for Total Solids, Sulphates, Nitrates,
Chlorides, Lead, Iron, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand
and Faecal Coliform. Main treatment plants (Soche, Blantyre and Limbe) were assessed. Focus
groups and key informant interviews with relevant personnel from City Assembly, Health centres and
communities using the waters for domestic use were conducted respectively. Data was obtained from
Health Management Information System office within the Blantyre District Health Office on
prevalence of waterborne related diseases. Survey conducted in all four City Assemblies in Malawi
revealed that there is generally poor wastewater management in all Malawian Cities. Assessment of
the three main wastewater treatment plants in Blantyre City revealed that aging infrastructure and lack
of maintenance together with poor operational and management issues contributes highly to poor
wastewater management. Concentrations of BOD, COD, Lead, Chlorides, Sulphates, and Fecal
coliform at abstraction points were as high as 242±106.4, 299±107.38, 0.665±0.11, 299±98.18,
391.33±39.30 mg/ℓ and 3126±2020.66 FC/100 mℓ. It has been revealed that poor wastewater
management in the city and lack of safe water for domestic use has adverse impacts on the health of
the downstream communities. It has been revealed from the assessment that river waters, at the
present condition are not fit for any domestic use including irrigation. There is need for swift
intervention by the Government and other stakeholders on awareness campaigns to the communities
downstream on the use of river waters and provision of safe water for domestic use and also on the
development of Water Resources Plan which should constitute Long-term wastewater Management
Plan.
Key Words: Blantyre City, Downstream livelihoods, Health impacts, Water borne disease
prevalence, Wastewater management; Water Quality, Malawi and Malawian Cities
1
Introduction
Increasing disposal of wastes in the water bodies means a great potential for environmental damage,
and emphasize the need to monitor, protect and manage water resources. However, water quality
should also be preserved from the view points of living environment for biota and the ecosystem.
Impact of water pollution on these means direct and indirect adverse effects on human beings through
the food chain and disturbances in the ecosystem.
2
Malawi is not an exception of challenges met by the developing countries in the areas of water
supply and sanitation and she acknowledges that environmental protection must be a component of
the management of aquatic resources. Like any other country of the world, Malawi strives to embark
on the actions to protect, preserve and improve the quality of the environment. The Ministry of
Irrigation and Water Development which is responsible for water and sanitation gives policy direction
and regulates the water sector. It has developed sanitation policy to guide government and NGOs in
the water and sanitation sector how to provide safe drinking water and disposal of industrial waste to
avoid polluting the water.
Malawian cities are faced with a critical problem of high rate of urbanization creating a challenge to
local authorities in the provision of social amenities such as water and wastewater management. In the
water sector, the principles of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are
reflected in the National Water Policy (2004) and in the Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
(MPRSP) (2002). Both the Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and the National Water Policy
seek to reduce poverty by increasing access to water for domestic and productive purposes. In
particular, the MPRSP focuses on constructing and rehabilitating water facilities, extend water supply
capacity, promote community-based management and improve water resources conservation and
management (W Mulwafu et al 2005). Mulwafu argued that although Malawi has come up with very
clear strategies and guidelines for promoting MDGs, a combination of human and financial resources,
bedevil the successful implementation of these ideas. In addition, the strategies do not articulate water
as a medium for poverty alleviation in a holistic manner i.e. the strategies in water sector for example
do not tackle all the areas (economic, environmental, technical, social as well as cultural issues) of
Integrated Water Resources Management practically. The key concept of the IWRM approach and the
basis of its success are integration and balancing of different goals and views in an informed manner.
This concept is an essential element that separates IWRM from other management practices.
The population of the city of Blantyre has grown rapidly (through immigration) over the past few
years without keeping pace with the national economy. The surface water sources in the city (rivers,
streams and hand-dug wells) is very polluted hence unsafe and unsuitable for human consumption,
mainly due to effluent discharges from industries, domestic and commercial sources; high level
content of fecal contaminants; poor sanitation combined with seepage from pit latrines and rotting
solid waste and suspended solids.
The recent study by S Kuyeli, 2007 revealed levels of chromium (56.12 mg/ℓ), zinc (30.83 mg/ℓ),
lead (2.60 mg/ℓ), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (1570.32 mg/ℓ), Chemical Oxygen Demand
(26784.33 mg/ℓ), oil and grease (650.00 mg/ℓ) were observed to exceed the public sewer discharge
limits in some of the industries. Sajidu et al, 2006, in their water quality inventory of Blantyre
streams, revealed levels of lead from 0.027 to 0.118 mg/ℓ, cadmium from 0.002 to 0.015 mg/ℓ, zinc
from 0.166 to 0.630 mg/ℓ with most values exceeding the acceptable limits. The continuous monthly
monitoring of the streams being done by Blantyre City Assembly shows high levels of BOD as high
as 40 mg/ℓ against the recommended 20 mg/ℓ standard set by both Malawi Bureau of Standards and
World Health Organization (BCEPS 2000). Lakudzala et al (1999) reported iron concentrations of up
to 1.86 mg/ℓ in Mudi River and lead concentrations of up to 1.0 mg/ℓ in Likhubula River. Despite
numerous research studies being conducted on rivers in the City, there has been no study on the
impacts of the pollution on the livelihoods of the downstream. This research therefore seeks to fill the
gaps on knowledge regarding impacts of the pollution on downstream users. It also identifies the
possible wastewater management options which could address the wastewater management problem.
2
Description of the Study Area and Methodology
2.1
The study Area
The study area is the area contained within Blantyre city boundary and within the catchments of
Mudi, Limbe and Naperi rivers, see Fig 2.1. The Mudi river and its tributary, the Naperi streams form
3
the main drainage from Blantyre area. Downstream communities studied consist of
sixteen villages under GVH Mpagaja located between and along Mudi and Naperi rivers over 2 km
after wastewater discharge
N
Figure 2.1: Map of Blantyre City and its location in Malawi
points and 10 villages under GVH Chemboma from 100 m to over 2 km downstream of wastewater
discharge points along Limbe river.
3.0
The Methodology
3.1
Introduction
Downstream communities studied consist of sixteen villages under GVH Mpagacha located between
and along Mudi and Naperi rivers over 2 km after wastewater discharge points and 10 villages under
4
GVH Chemboma from 100 m to over 2 km downstream of wastewater discharge points along
Limbe river.
3.2
Wastewater Treatment Plants
The research study included assessment of the 3 main wastewater treatment plants, their current
condition as well as their performance in meeting effluent standards as required by the WHO and the
Malawi Bureau of Standards. This was achieved through a general inspection of the three wastewater
treatment plants, through researcher’s observations, unstructured interviews with the plant operators
and through the analysis of their effluents.
3.3
Design of the Study
Data used in this research was collected from primary and secondary sources. The study adopted both
qualitative and quantitative paradigm to achieve the highlighted objectives. The focus group
discussions and the Investigative Survey Research Approach was the base research instrument for the
study. The research instruments were: key informant interviews; transect walk, focus group
discussions, documents review and laboratory tests for selected parameters based on health impacts
and availability of test equipment. The study started with surveying the four Malawian cities to get an
overview of wastewater management in all the cities and then focused on Blantyre City.
3.3.1
Sampling Design
Water samples were collected from Limbe, Mudi and Naperi rivers: At the abstraction points by the
communities for domestic purposes; Upstream in order to have a basis for analysis (except for Naperi
river); Few km upstream discharged points after industrial activities before the effluent discharge
points by the municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sampling was carried out once a week for 5
weeks 17thFebruary, 23rdFebruary, 27thFebruary, 2ndMarch and 6thMarch 2009. Eleven samples were
collected per sampling trip. Sampling bottles consisted of plastic bottles washed adequately and
rinsed with distilled water. Samples were refrigerated soon after collection preserved according to
Malawi Standard 214. Fecal coliform test was being prepared at the site using membrane filtration
method.
3.5
Data Collection
Focus groups were conducted with the communities using the waters for domestic purposes
downstream and also with the HSA responsible for the areas using guiding questions. Guiding
questions for community focus groups were selected in such a way that information regarding use of
the river waters by the community, the challenges or problems they face with potable water supply
and the consequences they meet because of using river waters was obtained.
5
Figure 3.1: Map of Blantyre City showing location of sampling points and study communities
Guiding questions were selected in such a way that information regarding water supply, waterborne
diseases, and also wastewater management in the city was obtained. HSAs involved were mainly
under Limbe Health Centre, Zingwangwa Health Centre, Mpemba Health Centre (though out of
Blantyre City) and Ndirande Health Centre (control). The HSAs focus groups were conducted after
the community focus groups. The choice of the Health centres was based on the outcome of the
respective community groups regarding where they go for treatment.
Key informant interviews were conducted with the HSAs, Blantyre City Assembly key personnel, and
chiefs to get a general view by the City Assembly staff on wastewater management in the city. Five
staffs were contacted from the department responsible for pollution control in the city. In order to
assess the health impacts of wastewater management on the downstream communities and the link
thereof, outcomes of the focus groups regarding uses of the river waters, physico-chemical data,
6
health data and the assessment of wastewater treatment plants. Consultations with Blantyre City
Assembly personnel, outcomes of the survey of all Malawian cities combined with literature review
were used to propose Best Management Options.
The determination of water use was done by comparing the physico-chemical properties with standard
quality of water designated for the particular use. Properties of water for different uses are available
as indicated by Richard Helmer et al, 1997.
3.6
Data Analysis
Laboratory results were analysed using excel. The means for each analyte were calculated. The
means for stream water samples were compared with maximum limits set by Ministry of Irrigation
and Water Development, Malawi Bureau of Standards and World Health Organisation guidelines on
surface water and effluents. Key informant interviews conducted consisted of four different groups of
communities i.e. Health key personnel, City Assembly key personnel and the chiefs, the kinds of
questions asked were not the same. No special tool has been used for the analysis of this data.
Conclusions drawn from community’s data were based on the raw data provided by the communities.
The conclusions from health personnel and City Assembly were based on the linkages between their
information and the information from the communities. Straight forward conclusions have been drawn
especially on the disease prevalence and information from community and health personnel.
4
Results and Discussion
4.1
An Overview of Impacts of Wastewater Management in the Malawian Cities on
Downstream Livelihoods
The results of the survey conducted in Mzuzu City Assembly, Lilongwe City Assembly and Zomba
City Assembly revealed that there is generally poor wastewater management in all Malawian cities.
Malawian cities are all challenged by the high rate of urbanization and aging infrastructure in some
cases. Mzuzu City has no existing conventional sewerage but the city’s population is growing at an
alarming rate. Mzuzu City having located on a high water table area, its wastewater management
practices pose a high risk of ground water pollution and also on the water bodies surrounding the area
which in turn has a negative impact on health of the downstream communities who depend on the
water bodies.
Wastewater management in Lilongwe City Assembly is poor. According to Population Statistics
2008, Lilongwe City population is growing at a rate of 5.1 % and the sewerage only covers 10 % of
the population, this includes industries. It was clearly stated that many industries are not sewered with
the view that they don’t produce much wastewater. With the increase in population and hence in socio
economic activities this endangers the lives of the population downstream Lilongwe river who depend
on it for domestic use. Kadewa, (2005) in his assessment of the impact of industrial effluents on water
quality of receiving waters indicated that Lilongwe lacks information of river quality. With growing
industrialization there is need for strict measures to be put in place to control and monitor the
pollution. As regards monitoring it was revealed that WRB responsible for monitoring both industries
and WWTP effluents lacks capacity to execute its responsibilities as such the monitoring is done on
adhoc basis. It was also generally observed that infrastructure maintenance is a big challenge, this
coupled with inefficient coverage is a health risk for the downstream.
4.2
Assessment of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants in Blantyre City
4.2.1
Blantyre Wastewater Treatment Plant
Blantyre is the largest of the treatment plants with the most mechanical/electrical equipment. The
serviceability of the plant is very low and the mechanical component of the treatment plant is not
7
working. According to the Blantyre City Master Plan by GoM, Ministry of Local Government
(1995), during its survey in 1995, 26 main items of the plant out of 31 were unserviceable with the
majority which appeared to be non operational due to breakdowns for a long periods with virtually no
steps being taken to effect (Table 4.1). During the time of assessment, there was no single
mechanical operation (see Fig 4.1 as an example).
Table 4.1: Serviceability of Blantyre Wastewater Treatment Plant (Adapted from GoM,
Ministry of Local Government 1995)
Electrical Plant
Main Pump Station
MMCP
Grit Plant MMCP
Aerator Panel
Grit Plant Bridge
mounted panel
PPST Bridge
mounted Panel
Screw Pump Panel
Digester Building (3
panels)
All ancillary items:
Lighting, small
power, lock-off-stop
push button, local
isolators
Instruments
Remarks Carl Bro
International, 1995
In process of being renovated
Could perhaps be renovated
Damaged and deteorated
beyond repair
Would need replacement
Remarks on current status (2009
March app 14 years downline)
According to Mr Kuyeri, BCA is in the
process of procuring a spare part
which was said to be very expensive.
Still in the process of being renovated
Not working and damaged due to rust
In the same condition
Not replaced
Would need replacement
Not replaced
Functional, but in very poor,
dangerous condition
Deteorated beyond repair
Not functioning
Not rehabilitated
Should be replaced
Not yet replaced
With the exception of one
item, the flow metering
equipment, would need to be
replaced
Not yet replaced
8
Fig 4.1: Examples of unoperational equipment at BWWTP
4.2.2
Soche Wastewater Treatment Plant
The plant is at the moment operating above its design capacity (flow last measured in 2000). Design
flow of Soche wastewater treatment plant is 4100 m3/day, and its average flow was 5465 m3 as per
2000 (BCA). The inflow and outflow meters are all out of order. Grit removal is done manually by
workers. One primary sedimentation tank and one humas tank is out of order for a long time. The
sand filters are non functional, which means there is no sand filtration taking place as designed. The
plant has 6 digesters all of which are out of order except one. All drying beds are now not functioning
(see Figs 4.2a, b, c and d). Farmers collect manure straight from the tank. When the digester is full,
it is supposed to stay for 6 months before emptying it and the solids are supposed to be dried on the
drying beds. Since only one digester is working, there is no staying for 6 months and also no drying
on beds.
Fig 4.2: Un-operational infrastructure at Soche Wastewater Treatment Plant
As the outflow goes into the Mlambalala river, farmers abstract the effluent to their farms. During
heavy rainfall, all the tanks especially the sedimentation tanks overflow and the overflow is directed
to the river.
4.2.3
Limbe Wastewater Treatment Plant
9
The treatment is not functional since August 2008 and the sewage goes straight into the river. It
consist of 16 waste stabilization ponds in series of 4 ponds discharging at 4 different points. It is used
by the communities from <100m from the discharge points, Fig 4.3
Fig 4.3: Vandalised pipe, Limbe river, community and WSP
4.3
Results of the Assessment
From the assessment it was generally observed that sanitation and wastewater sector is given very low
attention by the authorities. During the assessment the researcher managed to follow up some parts
one of the sewer lines, it was observed that there were blockages that have lasted for more than a year
unattended an example of which has been shown in Fig 4.4. According to the personnel consulted at
Limbe WWTP, the overflow was said to be accounting for about half the flow that is supposed to
reach the plant.
Fig 4.4: An overflow from a manhole in Chiwembe eucalyptus forest.
During the consultations with the Water Resources Board (WRB), Chief Water Resources Officer
now Deputy Director General (Mr. M Mikuwa), it was highlighted that WRB is responsible for
monitoring water resources quality in Malawi including issuing of licences (this includes for
industries that discharge directly in water without pretreatment). Monitoring activity is supposed to be
continuous and regular (monthly) but is on adhoc basis because of lack of resources. In Lilongwe for
example, Lilongwe City Assembly indicated that they are monitored on a yearly basis by the WRB.
The City Assembly according to Mr. Kwanjana, has laboratories but are not equipped and therefore
only WRB through the Central Laboratories do the monitoring. On the other hand Mr. Peaches Phiri,
the Central laboratory technician in Lilongwe indicated that lack of resources is a big challenge WRB
is facing in terms of water quality monitoring. This in turn has a great impact on the quality of
surface waters in Malawi which translates into health impacts on downstream livelihoods. According
to the current plan for monitoring trade effluents, only BOD, oils grease and fatty matter are
monitored and charges are based on the strength of the effluent. For example charges for BOD in
trade effluents range from 53 USD (400 ppm) to 400 USD (Over 1200 ppm) per month @K150/$
(BCA Trade effluent by-laws, 1982). Heavy metals and other hazardous and toxic chemicals are not
considered in trade effluent monitoring as such pollution of the Blantyre City rivers with metals like
Lead is bound to continue until such strategies are put in place. WRB act as an independent
10
Regulatory Authority when it comes to water quality management but it is to a larger extent
greatly influenced by Government. Lack of clear regulatory responsibility and conflict between the
regulator and operator functions of the utility impacts the organizations’ performance negatively. A
strong regulatory framework is developed when the utility (service provider) is isolated from political
influence.
4.4
Physico-Chemical Properties of Effluents and River Waters
Table 4.1:
SAMPLING POINT
Limbe river Mpingwe
(L1)
Mboma
(L2)
Mtambo
(L3)
Nasolo
Mudi river
(M1)
Golf club
(M2)
Mkoka
(M3)
Naperi river Mibawa
(N1)
Stella Malis
(N2)
Mitomoni
(N3)
BWWTP
Effluents
SWWTP
TDS
173.19
Chlorides Sulphates
11.237
37.062
Iron
0.03
Lead
0.0138
FC
121.6
Nitrates
1.538
BOD
69.4
COD
133
DO
5.1
844.34
488.01
397.009
0.018
0.806
34174
17.504
255
327
3.1
447.04
55.922
349.24
0.056
0.546
2840
12.57
160
252.6
4.48
120.6
19.2054
38.868
0.0158
0.0028
342
3.39
140
252
5.64
1198
304.04
411.13
0.2
0.848
27404
3.17
418
630
2.66
422
299.788
293.326
0.046
0.4282
1138
2.56
242
299
4.78
475.26
339.054
205.398
0.04
0.296
16800
10.84
190
388.4
4.34
760
227.67
419.122
0.218
0.588
3126
3.59
236
330
4.58
282.92
157.112
363.547
0.04
0.742
176
4.172
192
220.6
4.84
442.92
367.03
516.275
610.42
455.532
0.464
1.256
24274
449.211
0.028
0.792
14470
STANDARDS GUIDELINES
50.99
13.716
604
220
860
299
0.54
2.38
Malawi Standard (MS
214:2005)
WHO
450-1000
100-200
200-400
0.01-0.2
0.01-0.05
0/100mℓ
6-10.0
NS
NS
NS
NS
600
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
MoWD
2000
750
800
0.3
50
NS
NS
NS
NS
Malawi Standard (MS 539)
500
NS
800
NS
NS
50
60
20
NS
0.05
MoWD : Ministry of Water Development Interim Guidelines (untreated rural water supplies)
MS 214 and 539: Malawi Standards for potable water and Industrial effluent maximum limits for discharge into inland waters respectively
NS: Not Specified
The laboratory results generated high levels of concentration in most of the parameters analyzed
especially at the community abstraction points. Charts 1a to 1i show the levels in each sampling.
Chlorides
700
1400
Concentration mg/ℓ
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
Sampling Points
Sampling Points
Fig 4.5a: Total Solids
Concentration
Nitrates
60
100
10
50
0
0
Sampling Points
Sampling Points
13.716
20
4.172
150
30
10.84
200
40
3.59
250
2.56
300
50
3.39
350
3.17
Concentration mg/ℓ
400
17.504
450
Concentration mg/ℓ
50.99
Sulphates
12.57
500
Fig 4.5b: Chlorides Concentration
1.538
Concentration mg/ℓ
Total Solids
11
Fig 4.5c: Sulphates Concentration
Fig 4.5d: Nitrates Concentration
Limbe source (L1) and Mudi river source (M1) registered low concentrations within the Malawi and
WHO maximum limits in all the parameters except in BOD, COD, and Fecal Coliform. These high
levels are attributed to some human activities happening upstream e.g farming. Concentrations of
Total solids were found all within the maximum limit as set by the Malawi Bureau of Standards
(Table 4.1) except at M2 which registered above the standard limits. Golf Club is located just after
the industrial activities and before the community abstraction points for domestic purposes. High
levels are attributed to numerous activities along the river in the City. Concentrations of Chlorides and
Sulphates were found very high at the abstraction points Mboma (Limbe river, 488 mg/ℓ), Mkoka
(Mudi river, 299.788 mg/ℓ), and Stella Malis (Naperi river, 419.122 mg/ℓ) respectively. Nitrates also
registered high levels above the standard limit at Mboma Village (17.504 mg/ℓ), Mtambo village
(12.57 mg/ℓ) and Naperi Mibawa (10.84 mg/ℓ) (Figs 4.5a, b, c and d).
Dissolved Oxygen
5
Biological Oxygen Demand
700
5.64
5.1
4.78
4.48
4.58 4.84
Concentration mg/ℓ
Concentration mg/ℓ
6
4.34
4
3.1
3
2.66
2.38
2
1
0.54
604
600
500
418
400
255
300
100
0
242
160 140
200
190
236
220
192
69.4
0
Sampling Points
Points
Fig 4.1 Sampling
f: Levels
of BOD
Fig 4.1 e: Levels of Dissolevd Oxygen
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Chemical Oxygen Demand
40000
860
35000
630
388.4
327
252.6 252
299
133
330
299
220.6
Counts of FC/100 mℓ
Concentration mg/ℓ
High concentrations at Mboma are partly attributed to raw sewage discharged just 500 m upstream the
abstraction point and also to the blocked manholes discharging raw sewage in the Limbe river
upstream. Excess nitrate concentrations have a potential of causing methaemoglobinaemia on the
human health and eutrophication in aquatic environment Blantyre Wastewater Treatment Plant
registered as high as 50.99 mg/ℓ above the Malawi standard for wastewater effluents (MS 539).
Levels of BOD and COD were also very high in all the sampling points including the controls (Figs
4.5f and 4.5g). This has an impact on the level of oxygen. Increase in nitrated results in decrease in
oxygen levels and the levels of nitrates in the rivers are slowly increasing if compared from levels of
past studies as highlighted by Kuyeli, 2007. This increase slowly leads to proliferation of algae
blooms in the long run and is a threat to water resources. Levels of dissolved oxygen in all rivers (at
abstraction points) were found lower than the marginal level i.e 5 mg/ℓ below which water life
especially fish is under stress (Fig 4.5e). This means that aquatic life in the rivers is at the moment
under stress. Assuming that in the dry season the flow is half the wet season, it clearly backs up the
information from the communities under study that in the dry season the villagers harvest dead fish
especially from Mudi river which could be translated into levels of DO below 2 mg/ℓ.
Fecal Coliform
34174
27404
30000
24274
25000
20000
16800
10000
5000
121.6
2840
342
1138
0
Sampling Points
14470
15000
Sampling Points
3126
176
12
Fig 4.5 g: Levels of COD
Fig 4.5 h: Levels of Fecal coliform
0.2
0.0028
0.6
0.792
0.742
0.588
0.4282
0.546
0.8
0.4
0.848
0.806
1
0.0138
Concentration mg/ℓ
0.028
Sampling Points
Fig 4.5 i: Concentration
of iron
1.2
1.256
Lead
1.4
0.218
0.04
0.04
0.2
0.046
0.056
0.0158
0.03
0.018
Concentration mg/ℓ
Iron
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.296
0.464
Levels of Fecal Coliform were as high as 34174 FC/100 mℓ, which is deadly if the water is used for
domestic purposes (Fig 4.5 h). Malawi and WHO standards stipulates that Fecal Coliform should not
be detected in any 100 mℓ of water sampled for drinking purposes.
0
Sampling Points
Chart Fig 4.5 j: Concentration of
Lead
According to Sheila Murphy, 2007, if Fecal coliform bacteria (over 200 colonies/100 mililitres (mℓ)
of water sample are found in water, it is possible that pathogenic (disease-or illness-causing)
organisms are also present in the water. Diseases and illnesses that can be contracted in water with
high Fecal coliform counts include typhoid fever, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, dysentery and ear
infections. This contributes highly to the presence of waterborne diseases as been stated by the health
personnel. This endangers greatly the health and living conditions of communities living downstream
and this cannot be overemphasized.
Levels of iron were within the limits as in the WHO and Malawi Standard (MS 214), 0.2 mg/ℓ except
in Blantyre Wastewater Treatment Plant and Naperi river, Stella Malis which registered 0.464 and
0.218 mg/ℓ. Lead levels were as high as 0.806 mg/ℓ and 0.546 mg/ℓ at Mboma and Mtambo village in
Limbe river respectively where as 0.746 and 0.588 at Mpagacha village (Naperi river) and Stella
Malis (Naperi river) respectively. In Mudi river Lead concentration registered as high as 0.848 at Golf
club and 0.4282 at Mkoka village. The maximun limit for the drinking water standard for lead is 0.05
mg/ℓ. This is an indication that the communities downstream receiving water bodies are directly
exposed to high levels of toxic substances which directly or indirectly affect their livelihoods. Lead is
a deadly heavy metal and are taking this heavy metal through drinking water, through plants whci are
consumed raw and also through aquatic animals which are consumable. This not only affect the
present generation but generations to come. From the results, it is a clear indication that the rivers are
being managed poorly and without the consideration of other users of the waters. The Water
Resources Act makes it an offence to pollute water. The regulation requires anyone who owns or
operates certain facilities or anyone who is discharging liquid effluent into the environment to obtain
consent to discharge. Dischargers of effluent have to obtain two permits-one from Environmental
Affairs (EA) and one from the Water Resources Board. The EA works with the Board in controlling
the pollution of water through the Discharge Consent process and through the imposition of fines for
polluting water.
4.5
Data collected from the Focus Groups and Key Informant Interviews with relevant
Health Personnel, Chiefs and Community
13
The target communities were water users only and the households were identified by their respective
village headmen through Group Village Headmen. Communities from: Kanjanga, Likotima, Mtambo,
Kafupa, Chilemba, Mponda, Kaipa and Mboma villages of Limbe river downstream and Mpagacha,
Chiimire, Nzeru, Mkoka, Mlanga, Manyenje, Mwandika, Martin, Mbinda, Baruti, Chirunduka,
Jumbe, Chimuwanga, Sumane, Kampala and Whiskes villages of Mudi and Naperi rivers downstream
participated in the focus groups
Table 4.2: Community Responses on use of river waters
COMMUNITY RESPONSES ON RIVER NWATER USES
Bathing
After bathing, their skin turns scally and whitish. The skin itches and dries out and later on cracks. The body
sometimes develops soles especially at the private parts. Men indicated that the penis swells at the tip and
turns red and when they go to the hospital they are treated as Sexual Transmitted Diseases. While women
indicated the same problem saying that their private areas especially the vaginal area gets infected and itches
to the point that the scour with stones. Since most of them were elderly women they indicated that they feel
shy to go the hospital because they are told that they have contacted STDs.
Washing
The communities indicated that they use a lot of soap in washing. Further to this clothes wear out very
quickly and they wear out by breaching out and tearing out while the clothes are fairly still new. Clothes most
of the times after washing produces foul smell and after wearing them they experience itching in their bodies.
On contact with river water especially when washing in the river itself, the communities indicated that they
are bit by small animals like snails and they stick to their skin and very painful to detach them (Called Sungu
in venecular language).
Irrigation
After irrigating their crops most of the times the crops lose chlorophyll. People use the same water for
cleaning vegetables for sale. The communities also indicated that at times after eating the vegetables they open
bowels. Vegetables which are grown are also source of income because they sell them in big markets like
Blantyre, Limbe etc
Drinking
Diarrhea very common in little kids after drinking the water Opening of bowels even by adults after drinking
water from unprotected wells dug close to the rivers. They are sometimes provided with chlorine for drinking
water treatment by through HSAs, the communities indicated that sometimes water turns black after adding
chlorine. Changes of colour of teeth
Cooking food
The food usually tastes and smells bad. Food looks like uncooked especially maize flour hard porridge which
is the staple food. Women from Mpagaja area also highlighted the issue of dead fish being carried by the river
and people catch and sell them very cheap. While in Limbe women highlighted the issue of eating fish from
waste stabilization ponds. In dry season there are very low flows and many times the water especially in
Mudi river turns green and in both rivers Mudi and Naperi there is a very bad foul smell produced. On this
GVH Mpagacha lamanted "I wish you came during dry season".
The communitiesusing
highlighted
that they
use rivers
and also in
theyTable
harvest4.3.
dambo
sand
forWWTP
sale from
Source of from
food communities
Responses
the river
waters
are for
as fishing
summarized
All
the
the rivers.
and income
assessed are not protected (fenced) except Soche as such communities find their way even to harvest
products from the WSPs see Fig 4.6d. WWTP as such the communities have created paths through
them. This is an indication that wastewater management is not given a priority by authorities as such
health of many especially communities close to WWTP and poor communities downstream is at risk
On the same, one of the women lamented that “we are being told to stop using the river waters but we
don’t have any other source of water supply” On the issue of access to safe water, the communities
from Mudi/Naperi indicated that only two MASAF stand pipes located in two villages which are
closer to town exist and the rest either travel greater than 2 km to get water from the taps or use river
water. In Limbe downstream communities, taps are available only in one village close to the
township and the rest depend on unprotected wells (during rainy season) and Limbe river.
4.6
Determination of the use the river waters as per current status
Criteria for different uses was used to compare with the quality of the receiving bodies to tentatively
establish their uses as per current status. From the assessment in it is worth to conclude that the rivers
under study are not fit at the present condition to be used by the community for any domestic use
including irrigation.
The levels indicated represent levels for the rainy season and during the dry season, the flow of the
rivers is very low (approximately half of the rainy seasons flow). According to GVH Mpagacha who
14
lamented that “I wish you came during the dry season” the impacts are worse during the dry
season where the rivers produce foul smell. It is during the dry season where the community harvest
dead fish which die because of the pollution. River water quality is not complying with any of the
uses as in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Compliance of river quality with different criteria uses
Malawi and other standards including Tanzanian temporary standards for different
uses
Drinking (swimming pools,
food and beverage)
animal husbandry,
fisheries, shell cultures,
recreation and water
contact sports
irrigation and for
industrial activities which
do not have to meet other
previous categories
MW
WHO
TZ
MW
WHO
TZ
MW
WHO
TZ
BOD520
NS
NS
5
NA
NS
5
NA
NS -
COD
NS
NS
NS
NA
NS
NS
NA
DO
NS
NS
6
NA
6 to 11
5
Chloride
100-200
250
200
NA
NS
Sulphate
200-400
250
NS
NA
Nitrate
(NO3-)
10
45
50
NA
Parameter
4.7
Quality of waters in the rivers
LIMBE
NAPERI
MUDI
Remarks
10
114.7±64.06
214±31
242±106.4
No compliance
NS
NS
192.8±84.57
275.3±77.36
299±107.38
NA
NS
3
4.79±0.44
4.71±0.18
4.78±0.94
DO levels complies
for irrigation use
200
NA
NS
400
285.23±387.57
192.39±50
299±98.18
Non compliance
except Naperi which
marginally complies
NS
NS
NA
NS
NS
192.64±221.46
391.33±39.30
293.326±146.1
All rivers comply
except Limbe
NS
50
NA
NS
100
10.035
3.88±0.4
2.858±0.43
All comply except
Limbe river
Iron
0.2
0.3
1
NA
NS
1.2
NA
NS
1.5
0.043±.018
0.129±.13
0.046±0.023
Compliance
Lead
0.05
0.05
NS
NA
0.01
NS
NA
NS
NS
0.28±.38
0.665±.11
0.43±0.33
Non compliance
FC
0
0
NS
NA
NS
NS
NA
NS
NS
1480.8±1922.2
3126±176
1138±732
very high for all the
purposes
NS Means not specified; NA Means Not Available
Health Data and Linkage with
Water Pollution
Health data on cases of waterborne diseases (Diarrhoea, Schistosomiasis, Dysentery, Skin infections,
and Cholera) was obtained from the Blantyre District Health Office.
Disease cases Limbe Health Centre by year
for under five children
Disease cases Ndirande Health Centre by
year for under five children
70,000
Cases
50,000
Diarrhoea
40,000
Skin infections
30,000
Cases
60,000
Dysentry
20,000
Schistomiasis
10,000
Cholera
0
1
2
3
4
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Skin infections
Dysentry
Schistomiasis
Cholera
1
5
2
3
4
5
Year (2004-2008)
Year (2004-2008)
Disease cases Mpemba Health Centre by
year for under five children
Disease cases Zingwangwa Health Centre by
year for under five children
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
2500
2000
Diarrhoea
Skin infections
Dysentry
Schistomiasis
Diarrhoea
Cases
Cases
Diarrhoea
1500
1000
Skin infections
Dysentry
Schistomiasis
500
Cholera
Cholera
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Fig 4.7: Disease casesYear
for
under five children from 2004-2008
Source:
District
Health Office,
(2004-2008)
Year (2004-2008)
HSA Office
15
It is important to note that information/data is referring to whole catchment and not to the
respective areas using water from the concerned rivers. From the discussions with the health centers
it was indicated that 90 % of water related cases e.g Cholera and diarrhoea come from areas close to
the rivers except in Ndirande health center where it was indicated that high number of cases is mainly
due to poor sanitation conditions and lack of general hygiene. This shows that Ndirande as a periurban community cannot stand as a reference or control for this particular research study since the
communities downstream are all urban poor communities. As indicated earlier on, there is no direct
link between disease prevalence and water quality to prove the hypothesis that the downstream are
affected more than the upstream because of the differences of the communities between upstream and
downstream. See Fig 4.7 showing cases of diarrhoea, skin infection, dysentery and cholera for under
five children in respective health centres from 2005-2008.
Schistosomiasis 2005
Schistosomiasis 2004
60
Disease Cases
Disease Cases
50
40
30
20
10
0
Limbe
Mpemba
Ndirande
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Zingwangwa
Limbe
Health Centre
Ndirande
Zingwangwa
Health Centre
Schistosomiasis 2007
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Schistosomiasis 2008
40
35
Disease Cases
Disease Cases
Mpemba
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Limbe
Mpemba
Ndirande
Health Centre
Zingwangwa
Limbe
Mpemba
Ndirande
Zingwangwa
Health Centre
Fig 4.7: Average Schistosomiasis urinary cases in 2004, 2004, 2007 and 2008 Source: District
Health Office, HSA Office
From the table and chart it is seen that in 2004, Mpemba had the highest Number of Schistosomiasis
urinary followed by Limbe and then Zingwangwa while as in 2005 Ndirande registered the highest
number of cases followed by Limbe, Zingwangwa then Mpemba and in 2007, Mpemba had the
highest number of cases followed by Ndirande, Limbe then Mpemba then finally in 2008, Limbe
registered the highest number of cases followed by Zingwangwa, Ndirande then Mpemba. Results
obtained from the physico-chemical analysis showed inevitable pollution of river water waters used
by the community for domestic purposes. Looking at the use of the river waters by the community it
is a clear indication that the communities are directly exposed to polluted water in different ways
16
which have great negative impact on their socioeconomic lives. It has also been clearly
indicated that 90 % of the water borne disease cases come from the communities using the river
waters. The linkage provided in this research paper was based on the information obtained from
health personnel of respective Health centers, communities using the river waters and the conclusions
drawn from assessment and the problem of water pollution as evidenced by physico-chemical results.
It is therefore an overview or a picture of a situation which is supposed to be investigated further
through other quantitative research studies. Fig 4.8 provides a brief overview of the link between
water quality, community data and disease prevalence.
HEALTH PERSONNEL RESPONSES
COMMUNITY RESPONSES
Itching and dryness of skin after
bathing and washing; skin
diseases
Private parts itching, paining and
swelling both women and men
(Very serious in men).
Frequent cholera, diarrhoea and
dysentry problems
Small animals like snails bite
them and are painfull to detach
from skin
LACK OF SAFE WATER
90% Water related disease cases
from communities close to the
rivers.
Skin diseases high
Genital diseases esp in men
(highlighted by Mpemba Health
Centre) but no information to
relate it to water quality
On problems of private parts,
health personnel dont
differentiate with STDs (Sexual
Transmitted Diseases)
UNDERLINE CONCERN: LACK OF
SAFE WATER FOR DOMESTIC
PURPOSES
COMMUNITY WATER USES
Washing clothes, drinking,
cooking
COMMUNITY CHALLENGES
Harvesting dambo sand
Bathing
Irrigation even with
wastewater straight from
ponds
RIVER WATER
QUALITY
INEVITABLY
POLLUTED:
High FC, High Lead:
High Sulphates; Low DO
etc
No choice interms of access to safe water
(No potable water supply)
Very little (infact only MASAF) CBOs on
provision of safe water in the areas studied
Only activity that was said was taking place
was administration of powdered Chlorne (..)
for treatment of water to avoid cholera
outbreaks . Communities complained that
river water esp. Mudi river water turns
black after adding chlorine (a sign of some
kind of reaction)
Fig 4.8: Simple Linkage of Data between the three sources (community, health and Physicochemical analysis
4.8
Causes of Poor Wastewater Management
From the discussions above, numerous causes and their effects of poor wastewater management have
been identified and have been summarized in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Cause and Effects of poor Wastewater Management
PROBLEM
CAUSE
EFFECTS
17
Water
pollution
Disposal of raw sewage; inefficient
wastewater treatment plants
Disposal of raw sewage and uncontrolled
trade effluents; inadequate coverage
Weak enforcement of regulations and
standards
Weak trade –effluent regulations
Lack of safe water for domestic use
Lack of control of water use by industries
Lack of compliance by industries with
available standards
Lack of independent Regulatory Authority
on Water Resources Management
Public Health endangered;
socioeconomic lives affected
leading to poverty
Heavy metal e.g. lead pollution
Might lead to eutrophication of the
water bodies, killing fish
Water not fit for any use including
agriculture
Frequent cases of waterborne
diseases such as schistosomiasis
and cholera
Increased costs by the Government
on medical since almost all of them
go to Government hospitals
Increased cost on water treatment in
the Liwonde township
Weak Legal
Framework
Lack of implementation and enforcement
capacity of legislation
Uncoordinated regulations
Lack of stakeholder participation
guidelines
Random economic development
Political Interference
Lack of supporting regulations
Lack of monitoring capacity by the
responsible organizations
Lack of stakeholder participation (No
guidelines for stakeholder participation in
the sector)
Poor enforcement of local regulations and
bylaws leading to poor governance of the
water resource
Unmatching urbanisation with
sewage infrastructure
Public Health Endangered, Social
economic lives affected leading to
poverty
Heavy metals loading in water
bodies
Lack of incentives for industries to
venture into cleaner technologies
Unsustainable use of the resource
(Water resource)
Deterioration
of sewerage
and sanitation
infrastructure
Growth of Industrial and socio-economic
activities without matching with the water
supply and sanitation activities
Lack of infrastructure maintenance and
repair
Blockage of sewer pipes and manholes
and their vandalism by the communities
Adoption of inappropriate technology
without proper assessment of the local
environment as the case with BWWTP
Poor planning leading to pollution of
water bodies e.g MCA no conventional
sewerage is available.
Lack of control over the communities and
this is aggravated by lack of protection
(WWTP not fenced)
Disposal of raw/partially treated
sewage in the water bodies
Increased load of pollution due to
poor performance
Increased contacts with the
hazardous substances from the
pollution loads by the communities
Deterioration of water quality
depriving access to safer water for
irrigation by the communities. At
the present state river waters under
study are not fit for any use
including irrigation.
Increased pollution of ground water
18
Weak
Government
institutions
Limited capacity (Human and financial)
Weak Institutional Capacity in terms of
technicity
Lack of proper Institutional Arrangement.
Department responsible for Sanitation
issues is not the one responsible.
Lack of coordination between
Government Institutions
Political interference
Lack of well trained experienced staff e.g
the case with Zomba City Assembly
Natural Resource not protected
Conflicting regulations leading to
poor management of the natural
resources
Social economic lives affected
leading to poverty
Increased medical costs by
Government on Waterborne related
diseases.
Several opportunities are available to facilitate Remedial measures to address the current situation:
 Regulations which are IWRM compliant have already been developed.
 Standards, codes and guidelines for most of the products and practices are available
developed by the National Standards Body.
 Availability of Water Resources Board as a monitoring authority for monitoring water
resources.
 The current Water Resources Act stipulates the transfer of the Sanitation responsibility to
Water Boards only that the transfer itself is still under way;
 Malawi Water Management Strategy developed in 1994 contains strategies which address
pollution problems
 National Water Policy, Decentralisation policy, private sector involvement policy, Sanitation
Policy have already been developed and some revised to comply with IWRM.
 Institutions and organisations which have stake in natural resources management are available
and are already executing their responsibilities and they only need to have clear
responsibilities so that there are no conflicts. There is need for a strategy to restrict political
interference.
 Several Stakeholders are available, there is need to develop a stakeholders participation
guidelines to ensure effective participation.
 Several Community Based Organisations e.g MASAF are available.
4.9
Suggested Best Management Options
Addressing wastewater pollution requires very substantial and long term investment. Basically
preliquisite for wastewater management covers policy issues, management approaches, technology
selection and financing mechanisms. The following Best Management Options have been suggested
both at National level and local level. The suggested options have been based on the outcomes of
the survey, assessment, physico-chemical analysis and on the community and health data.
4.9.1
a)
b)
c)
d)
National Level
Expedite the introduction of an Independent Regulatory Authority on Water Resources
Management. Plans are underway to integrate Water Resource Management into Malawi
Energy Regulatory Authority.
Translate the policies into action-oriented activities, and give priority to WQM by providing
funds and technical expertise.
Build capacity of Water Resources Board and Service provider is a must if performance is to
be achieved. This should include an increase in the level of autonomy both financial and
decision making. This is driver towards accountability for any performance by the service
provider.
Revise Trade effluent charges to reflect pollution load and water quantity usage. This will act
as an incentive for industries to opt for cleaner technologies.
19
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Encourage development of a common
wastewater treatment plant by industries
in the same area to reduce the pollution load (decentralisation of treatment plants). This
should be an option by industries to reduce discharging costs either in rivers or in sewer lines.
Facilitate the transfer of Municipal wastewater service provision to water supply together with
necessary capacity. Linking wastewater management with other sectors like water supply
would ensure faster cost-recovery, risk reduction, financial stability and sustainable
implementation.
Develop and implement a Water Resources Plan for rivers in the Cities. A plan is a process
that defines the future desired situation and how to attain it. It constitutes the following
aspects: Understanding the present; setting objectives; establishing strategies and defining
implementation plan. The plan together with the situation analysis is very important in water
resources management because it drives problem solving, phase out undesirable event
(inevitable pollution and health impacts in this case), develop underutilised resources e.g.
biogas production for energy etc. The strategies to be developed should integrate all aspects
that have a stake in water resource quality and quantity and should constitute a long term
wastewater management strategy.
Develop integrated urban water supply and sanitation management systems also addressing
environmental impacts.
Government of Malawi to consider introduction of competition within and between utilities
based on performance. This can be achieved through development of benchmarks which
should integrate all issues e.g. environmental (this includes pollution, blockages, meeting
water quality standards etc), economic, staff retention, public awareness, equity, stakeholders
participation including out contracting etc
Government of Malawi to create an enabling environment for Stakeholder involvement and
public private partnerships in the water sector; a multi-stakeholders approach must be
encouraged.
4.9.2 Local Level
a) Stringent standards should be set for the polluted water bodies so as to prevent any further
indiscriminate disposal of wastewater
b) BCA in conjunction with other stakeholders to conduct an inventory of all industries
available in the City with their potential pollutants
c) All industries should pre-treat their wastewater to acceptable levels before discharging into
the Municipal sewer or rivers.
d) BCA to consider shifting the Sanitation Management service delivery to appropriate
Department so as to enable prompt response on issues that affect public health.
e) BCA to improve coordination and flow of information within and outside environment.
5
Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1
Conclusion
From the analysis of the results obtained by this study the following conclusions can be drawn:
1) Generally without doubt there is poor water resources governance in Malawian Cities, more
specifically in Blantyre City. Governance of water resources and water services functions
more effectively within a system which enables broad participation by civil society, including
Community Based Organizations, Non-Governmental Organizations, private enterprise and
media. In Malawi participation of a broad range of stakeholders in water resources
management is very poor and this needs to be strengthened because there are no guidelines
for stakeholders participation to offer direction (Patrick Moriarty et al, 2007). Good
Governance is the central instrument for reducing poverty and preliquisite for Sustainable
Development. According to UN Declaration, good governance is a preliquisite for
Sustainable Development and the achievement of MDGs (INWENT ,2007)
20
2) Without overemphasizing, Blantyre City
river waters i.e. Limbe, Naperi and Mudi
are inevitably polluted and this has undesirable health impacts on the communities living
downstream. Concentrations of BOD, COD, Lead, Chlorides, Sulphates, and Fecal coliform
at abstraction points were as high as 242±106.4, 299±107.38, 0.665±0.11, 299±98.18,
391.33±39.30 mg/ℓ and 3126±2020.66 FC/100 mℓ.
3) There is statistically no direct link established between disease prevalence and water quality
and therefore detailed and quantitative research is required for establishing the statistical link
between disease prevalence and water quality. This has been due to differences in
communities under study (Urban-rural) and the control (peri-urban). Direct conclusions
drawn from health personnel and community indicates that wastewater management in the
city has got adverse and negative impacts on socio-economic lives of the downstream
communities. The impacts are aggravated by lack of clean and safe water for domestic use.
4) From the assessment made, the river waters at the present state are not fit to be used by the
community for any domestic use including irrigation. The river water quality does not comply
with any of the criteria (for different uses).
5) In summary, development and implementation of a Water Resources Plan which constitutes a
long-term wastewater management plan for rivers in the Cities could solve the situation. In
terms of public health; urgent public awareness, civic education and provision of safe water to
the downstream communities would reduce the cases of waterborne diseases.
5.2
Recommendations
The following recommendations have been made:
1) Swift intervention by the Government and other stakeholders by putting in place strict control
and monitoring measures on the effluent quality and wastewater infrastructures.
2) Government of Malawi to urgently consider providing potable water to the Blantyre-rural
communities depending on rivers emanating from Blantyre City.
3) Materialize the integration of wastewater management services into Environmental and water
resource monitoring.
4) An immediate take off on the development of Water Resources Plan is strongly recommended
involving all the stakeholders.
5) An urgent sensitization awareness and training on water resources management to the general
public and communities living downstream rivers that emanate from Blantyre City.
6) The fencing of all Wastewater Treatment Plants to avoid communities from converting it to
free for all service. In the absence of the fence management of the utility is difficult due to
intruders. In Limbe WWTP for example communities are cultivating up to pond boundaries.
7) The BCA through consultations to make a thorough assessment of the technology available at
BWWTP and consider modifying to a more sustainable, efficient technology which could
meet the Water Quality Objectives.
8) A similar study to be undertaken in other Malawian Cities
6
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