Personality Theory
- a theory is a set of abstract concepts developed about a group of facts or events in
order to explain them
- a personality theory is an organized system of beliefs that helps us to understand
human nature
- theories are not "given," they are constructed
- the first personality theories evolved out of clinical data: based on observation and
reasoning
- recent theories are experiment based
- personality theories tend to be functional in their orientation
Macro theories
- global
- emphasize comprehension of the whole person
- more likely to stem from clinical observation
Micro theories
- based on specific research
- focus on limited aspects of human behavior
- personality theories function as an integrative force
Characteristics of a good theory:
- organizes and integrates a known set of data
- allows predictions to be made
- simplicity (parsimony)
- stimulates further research
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Three Research Traditions in Personality
1. The Clinical Approach
- theories are based on experiences with clients
- studies the individual or a few individuals
- holistic: focuses on the whole person
- involves careful listening and observing
- initiated with Freud
- brilliant observer
- has led to very different macro theories
Freud:
- unconscious processes
- sexual and aggressive instincts
- early experience shapes personality
- anxiety and defense mechanisms
Rogers:
- focus on the self
- movement toward growth and self-actualization
- entered the subjective world of the client and tested change objectively
-
Kelly:
- the person as "scientist"
- constructs: how the world is interpreted
- constructs can be too rigid, or randomly applied
Strengths of the Clinical Approach:
- observe a great variety of phenomena
- focuses on the person as a whole
- generates new observations
- generates many hypotheses
Limitations of the Clinical Approach:
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- reliability of the observations
- difficult to test hypotheses
2. The Correlational Approach
- uses statistical methods to establish the association between sets of measures.
- emphasizes individual differences
- attempts to establish relationships among these differences
e.g., how parental intelligence is related to offspring intelligence
- uses data obtained on large numbers of subjects
- focuses on parts of the personality
- initiated with Galton
- furthered by Spearman: factor analysis
- start with a large mass of data
e.g., related to abilities and skills
- identify commonalities – factors
e.g., vocabulary, verbal reasoning, mathematical
Cattell (1943):
- the birth of traits – fundamental units of personality
- data from many ratings and questionnaires are put through factor analysis to
identify items that are similar
Carver & Scheier (1985)
- were interested in optimism as a personality trait
- devised, tested, revised, tested, retested and retested the Life Orientation Test
(LOT)
Strengths of the Correlational Approach
- interested in all aspects of personality
- "precise" numerical scores
- uses statistical procedures to establish relationships
Limitations of the Correlational Approach
- uses mainly self-report data
- limitations of questionnaires
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- research often limited to undergraduates
3. The Experimental Approach
- the method of the physical sciences
- involves the systematic manipulation of variables to establish causal
relationships.
- manipulate one or more variables (independent)
- measure the effect on a second or on several variables (dependent)
Pavlov study: conflict and the development of neurosis
- dogs were conditioned to respond to two different stimuli
e.g., a circle was conditioned to food and an oval was condition to shock.
- stimuli between an oval and a circle were presented
- the inability to discriminate led to emotionally disturbed behavior in the
dogs
Pavlov:
- interested in general laws of psychological functioning
- used animals in his research
- applied the laws to specific phenomena
Strengths of the Experimental Approach:
- establishes cause and effect relationships
Limitations:
- can't address subjective phenomena
- may not be generalizable
- study participants may try to be "good subjects," i.e., give the experimenter
what they think he wants
- some may try to do the opposite
- misses the richness of personality
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Summary of Potential Strengths
and Limitations
Case Studies and Clinical Research
Potential Strengths
Avoid artificiality of lab
Study full complexity
In-depth study of individuals
Potential Limitations
Unsystematic observation
Subjective interpretation of data
Entangled relationships among variables
Correlational Research and Questionnaires
Potential Strengths
Study wide range of variables
Study relationships among
many variables
Potential Limitations
Doesn't establish causal relationships
Problems of reliability and
validity of self-report questionnaires
Experimental Research
Potential Strengths
Manipulates specific variables
Records data objectively
Establishes cause-effect
relationships.
Potential Limitations
Excludes most phenomena that
can't be studied in the lab
Creates artificial setting that limits
generalizability
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