CHAPTER 10
Cognitive Abilities
OUTLINE
I.
TESTING FOR INTELLIGENCE
Many psychologists agree with Robert Sternberg that three characteristics encompass intelligence:
possession of knowledge, ability to efficiently use knowledge to reason, and ability to employ that
reasoning adaptively in different environments.
A.
A Brief History of Intelligence Tests
Alfred Binet’s original test included a series of age-graded items that demonstrated
differences among children in reasoning, judgment, and problem-solving abilities. Children
who answered questions at their age level were considered of “regular” intelligence. Louis
Terman developed the Stanford-Binet test, devised a scoring method known as the
intelligence quotient (IQ), and created the IQ test, which included questions for adults.
Despite cultural biases, IQ tests were given to screen immigrants and to place soldiers in
appropriate assignments. David Wechsler developed a new test that was made up of several
subtests. Wechsler’s test reduced the extent to which answers depended on a certain culture
and had some subtests that had little or no verbal content.
B.
Intelligence Tests Today
The Wechsler test, which is designed to be administered individually, includes the verbal
scale and the performance scale.
The average result obtained by people at each age level is assigned an intelligence quotient,
or IQ score, of 100. Each individual’s score is compared to the average for his or her age
level in order to compute an IQ. Therefore, an IQ score is a relative measurement.
C.
II.
Aptitude and Achievement Tests
These two types of tests are closely related to intelligence tests. Aptitude tests are designed
to gauge a person’s ability to learn or do certain things. Achievement tests measure how
much a person already knows in a certain area.
MEASURING THE QUALITY OF TESTS
Tests have two advantages over other means of evaluation: They are standardized so that different
people’s performances can be compared, and they are quantifiable (which allows the calculation
of norms).
A.
Reliability
If a test has reliability, a person will receive about the same score when tested on different
occasions. There are three methods of checking the reliability of a test: test-retest, alternateform, and split-half reliability. If the correlation coefficient between two scores is high and
positive, the test is considered reliable.
B.
Validity
A test that has validity measures what it is designed to measure. There are several measures
of validity, including content validity, criterion validity, and predictive validity.
III. EVALUATING INTELLIGENCE TESTS
A.
B.
The Reliability and Validity of IQ Tests
1. How Reliable Are Intelligence Tests? IQ tests usually provide consistent results.
However, test-retest reliability can be low if the initial testing is done prior to seven
years of age. The testing conditions and the person’s motivation when taking the test
can also affect results.
2. How Valid Are Intelligence Tests? The validity of IQ tests is difficult to measure, in
part because intelligence itself is difficult to define. IQ tests do a reasonably good job
of predicting academic and job success, but scores can be distorted by the response to
the tester.
3. How Fair Are Intelligence Tests? Controversy about the fairness of IQ tests continues,
especially in terms of cultural factors. Although many of the technical problems in IQ
tests have been solved, the social consequences of testing should be evaluated.
Linkages: Emotionality and the Measurement of Cognitive Abilities
People tend to perform at their best when their arousal level is moderate. Too much or too
little arousal will result in decreased performance. Those whose arousal inhibits their
performance in testing are said to suffer from text anxiety. Concern over negative
stereotypes about the mental abilities of the group to which they belong can impair test
performance of some members of ethnic minorities. In sum, people who are severely
anxious about testing will not perform to the best of their ability.
C.
IQ Scores as a Measure of Innate Ability
The influences of heredity and the environment interact to produce intelligence.
Correlational studies with twins suggest that heredity influences the development of IQ.
However, the environment also exerts a strong influence on IQ. Previously underprivileged
children placed in homes that provide an enriching intellectual environment have shown
moderate but consistent increases in IQ. And children placed in enrichment programs show
improved health, academic achievements, and intellectual skills.
D.
Group Differences in IQ Scores
An examination of the differences among group means on IQ tests does not provide
information about specific individuals in those groups. A person in the low-score group may
have an individual score that is much higher than a person from the high-score group. In
addition, inherited features may be influenced by the environment.
Socioeconomic Differences. A child’s ability is influenced by genetic factors and
perhaps by the effects of the parents’ occupation and education on the home
environment. Also, higher-income families may encourage a higher level of motivation
to succeed.
2. Ethnic Differences. There is variation in average IQ scores between ethnic groups, but
more variation within groups. Research indicates that differences in IQ among ethnic
groups may be due to differences in socioeconomic environment, parental education,
nutrition, health care, and schools. Also, people in some cultures may be more or less
motivated during testing, depending on the value their cultures place on education or
intelligence.
Conditions That Can Raise IQ Scores
Enrichment programs such as Head Start can cause at least temporary gains in IQ scores.
Spending time in projects such as Head Start may cause a child to be more motivated and
have a better attitude toward school.
1.
E.
F.
IQ Scores in the Classroom
IQ scores may influence teachers’ expectations about the abilities of their students. In turn,
these expectancies may influence students’ performance. But IQ scores can also help
educators identify student strengths and weaknesses, and offer a curriculum that will best
serve the students.
G.
Thinking Critically: Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased Against Certain Groups?
What am I being asking to believe or accept?
Intelligence tests are biased against some minority groups.
What evidence is available to support the assertion?
Differences in IQ scores may reflect motivation and a person’s trust in the test administrator.
Some tests are not “culture fair.” People may interpret the test questions intelligently but
differently than the defined “right” answer.
Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?
Intelligence tests may be biased in assessing general intelligence, but they may still be good
predictors of who will do well in school or on the job.
What conclusions are most reasonable?
Current tests, although not completely culture fair, can be useful as predictors of success in
the culture in which they are administered. Probably no culture-free test of intelligence
exists, as intelligence is defined by the behaviors that a culture values. Psychologists have
turned to focus more energy on how to help people develop the abilities required for success
in a particular culture.
IV. UNDERSTANDING INTELLIGENCE
A. The Psychometric Approach
The psychometric approach tries to describe the structure of intelligence by examining the
correlations among scores on various tests. Charles Spearman postulated two types of
intelligence that account for test scores: general intelligence or g; and special intelligences,
or s, which are the specific skills and knowledge needed to answer the questions on a
particular test. L. L. Thurstone disagreed. He used factor analysis, a statistical technique, to
find several independent primary mental abilities, including numerical ability, reasoning,
verbal fluency, spatial visualization, perceptual ability, memory, and verbal comprehension.
Later, Raymond B. Cattell argued that g exists and that it consists of fluid intelligence and
crystallized intelligence. Most psychologists agree that there is g. They just do not agree on
what g is.
B.
The Information-Processing Approach
Psychologists using the information-processing approach have tried to understand
intelligence by examining the mental processes involved in intelligent behavior. Research
suggests that those with greater intellectual ability have more attentional resources available
when performing a task. Speed of basic processing plays only a small role in determining
intelligent behavior.
C.
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence: analytic, creative, and
practical. Analytic intelligence refers to the sort of intelligence that traditional IQ tests
measure. Creative intelligence is what you would use to complete a generative task, such as
composing music. Practical intelligence refers to one’s “common sense,” or ability to solve
practical problems in life, such as determining what to do if you are stranded in a blizzard.
D.
Multiple Intelligences
In his theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Gardner proposed that certain abilities are
relatively independent of one another and that individuals may develop some “intelligences”
more highly than others. Gardner suggested eight different intelligences: linguistic, logicalmathematical, spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self-knowledge),
interpersonal (social skills), and naturalistic. Other researchers have described emotional
intelligence.
E.
V.
Focus on Research Methods: Tracking Cognitive Abilities over the Life Span
Age-related changes in mental abilities can be examined through cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies. The cross-sequential with resampling design combines cross-sectional
and longitudinal studies. Results show that crystallized intelligence may continue to grow
into old age. Fluid intelligence remains stable in adulthood and then declines in late life.
Specifically, problems in working memory, processing speed, problem-solving strategy
organization, flexibility, and control of attention appear late in life.
DIVERSITY IN COGNITIVE ABILITIES
A. Creativity
Creativity is often assessed by tests of divergent thinking, which measure the ability to
generate many different but plausible responses to a problem. Expertise in the field, a set of
creative skills, and intrinsic motivation are necessary for creativity. External rewards can
deter creativity. The correlation between IQ scores and creativity is not very high. IQ tests
measure convergent thinking, whereas creativity is characterized by divergent thinking.
B.
Unusual Cognitive Ability
1. Giftedness. Those with extremely high IQs do not necessarily become creative
geniuses. They do, however, usually become very successful in this society or culture.
2. Mental Retardation. This label is applied to people whose IQs are 70 or below and
who fail at daily living skills. Mental retardation sometimes has very specific causes,
such as Down syndrome. In most cases of familial retardation, there is no specific
cause. Psychologists believe familial retardation results from an interaction between
heredity and the environment. Children with mild retardation differ from other children
in three ways: They perform certain mental operations more slowly, they know fewer
facts about the world, and they are not very good at using particular mental strategies
in learning and problem solving.
3. Learning Disabilities. People with learning disabilities have academic performance
that does not measure up to their measured intelligence. People with dyslexia see
letters as distorted or jumbled. Dysphasia is difficulty in understanding spoken words.
In dysgraphia a person has trouble writing, and in dyscalculia a person has trouble with
arithmetic.