CHAPTER FIFTEEN
OUTLINE
I.
The Life of Bandura
A.
Bandura was born in Canada and attended the University of British Columbia with a
major in psychology. He then earned his Ph.D. and started to work in Wichita, Kansas at
a Guidance Center. Bandura joined the faculty at Stanford University where he received
many honors for his work, while he compiled an extensive record of publications.
B.
Modeling: The Basis of Observational Learning
C.
1.
Bandura believed in modeling, which is a behavior modification technique that
involves observing behavior of others (the models) and participating with them in
performing the desired behavior. Bandura believed it is possible, through
modeling, to acquire responses that we have never performed of displayed
previously and to strengthen or weaken existing responses. Bandura used the
famous Bobo doll experiments to show how a person, such as a child; will model
behaviors shown to them by an adult. The Bobo doll experiments showed how a
model (the adult) could effect the research participant (the child) to elicit
aggressive behaviors, actions that were not displayed with the same strength by
children who had not observed the models.
2.
Additional research compared highly aggressive children and children that were
more inhibited. When the parents of these two groups were compared the parents
of the inhibited children were inhibited, and the parents of the aggressive children
were aggressive.
3.
Research has also shown that behaviors a person usually suppresses or inhibits
may be performed more readily under the influence of a model. This is called
disinhibition, which refers to the weakening of an inhibition or restraint through
exposure to a model. The researchers concluded that modeling affects the
research participants perceptual responses to stimuli. So modeling can determine
not only what the research participants do but also what they look at and perceive.
4.
Bandura concluded that much behavior, (good and bad, normal and abnormal) is
learned by imitating the behavior of other people. Bandura became an outspoken
critic of the type of society that provides the wrong models for its children,
particularly with violent shows on television and violent movies and video games.
His research clearly shows the effects of models on behavior. In Skinner’s
system, reinforces control behavior, for Bandura, it is the models who control
behavior.
5.
Bandura investigated three factors found to influence modeling: (A) the
characteristics of the models affect our tendency to imitate them, (B) the
characteristics or attributes of the observers also determine the effectiveness of
observational learning, (C) the reward consequences associated with the
behaviors can affect the extent of the modeling and even override the impact of he
models’ and observers’ characteristics.
The Process of Observational Learning
D.
1.
Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found four governing
mechanisms: (A) the attentional process, where we develop our cognitive
processes enough to imitate displayed behavior, (B) the retention process where
we remember or repeat the behavior at a late time, (C) the production process
which translates the mental images or verbal meanings of the model’s behavior
into our own behaviors, and (D) the incentive and motivational processes where
we perceive that the model’s behavior leads to a reward, so therefore we also will
get a reward when we successfully learn the modeled behavior.
2.
According to Bandura, observational learning will not occur unless the subject
pays attention to the model. The more closely we pay attention to a model’s
behavior, the more likely we are to imitate it. Attention to modeling behavior
varies as a function of the observer’s cognitive and perceptual skills and the value
of the behavior being modeled. The more highly developed are our cognitive
abilities and the more knowledge we have about the behavior being modeled, the
more carefully we will attend to the model and perceive their behavior.
3.
We retain information about a model’s behavior in two ways: through an
imaginal internal representational system or through a verbal system. We
summon up a vivid picture from our past or someone says a few words and we
verbally understand past information very clearly.
4.
Translating imaginal and verbal symbolic representations into over behavior
requires the production processes, described more simply as practice. Practice of
these repeated performances and feedback on their accuracy, is needed to produce
the smooth performance of behavior.
5.
When incentives are available, observation is more quickly translated into action.
Incentives also influence the attentional and retention processes. Our incentive to
learn is influenced by our anticipation of the reinforcement or punishment for
doing so. Reinforcement can assist in modeling but is not vital to it. When
reinforcement occurs, it can be given by another person, experienced vicariously,
or administered by oneself.
Self-Reinforcement and Self-Efficacy
1.
Self-reinforcement is much like other theorist’s conscious or superego, but
Bandura denies this is the same. A continuing process of self-reinforcement
regulates much of our behavior. We learn our initial set of internal standards from
the behavior of models, typically our parents and teachers.
2.
In Bandura’s system, self-efficacy refers to feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and
competence in coping with life. Meeting and maintaining our performance
standards enhances self-efficacy; failure to meet and maintain them reduces it.
People low in self-efficacy feel helpless, unable to exercise control over life
events. People who have high self-efficacy believe they can deal effectively with
events and situations. Because they expect to succeed in overcoming obstacles,
they persevere at tasks and often perform at a high level. According to Bandura,
we base our judgment about our self-efficacy on four sources of information: (A)
Previous success experiences, or performance attainment; provides a direct
indication of our level of mastery and competence, (B) having vicarious
experiences, which is seeing other people perform successfully; will strengthen
self-efficacy, (C) while verbal persuasion means reminding people that they
possess the ability to achieve whatever they want to achieve, which can enhance
self-efficacy, and (D) physiological and emotional arousal can interfere with
self-efficacy when it is at high levels in a person. Bandura has helped people to
enhance self-efficacy in learning to play musical instruments, relate better to
persons of the opposite sex, master computer skills, give up cigarette smoking,
and conquer phobias and physical pain.
E.
F.
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-Efficacy
1.
According to Bandura, infancy, modeling is limited to immediate imitation. The
modeled behavior must be repeated several times and must be within the infant’s
range of sensorimotor development. By 2, children have develop sufficient
attentional, retention, and production processes to begin imitating behavior some
time after the observation rather than immediately. Parents and then teachers
influence self-efficacy judgments through their impact on the development of
cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills, which are vital to efficient adult
functioning.
2.
The transitional experiences of adolescence involve coping with new demands and
pressures. Bandura noted that the success of this stage typically depends on the
level of self-efficacy established during the childhood years.
3.
Bandura divided adulthood into two periods, young adulthood and the middle
years. Young adulthood involves adjustments such as marriage, parenthood, and
career advancement. People with high self-efficacy have successful outcomes of
these experiences. The middle years of adulthood are also stressful as people
reevaluate their careers and their family and social lives.
4.
Self-efficacy now becomes difficult in old age. A lowering of self-efficacy can
effect physical and mental functioning. To Bandura, self-efficacy is the crucial
factor in determining success or failure throughout the entire life span.
Behavior Modification
1.
Bandura’s goal in developing his social-cognitive theory was to modify or change
those learned behaviors that society considers undesirable or abnormal. Bandura
applied modeling techniques to eliminate fears and other intense emotional
reactions. He used a technique called guided participation which involves
watching a live model and then participating with the model. The participants
eventually come in contact with what they may fear or avoid. In covert
modeling, research participants are instructed to imagine a model coping with
feared or threatening situation; they do not actually see a model. This type of
modeling has been used for snake phobias and social inhibitions. Phobias or fears
restrict a person’s life where they may have a rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath,
and vomiting when confronted with objects, animals or situations they fear. To
relieve these fears expands a person’s environment and increases self-efficacy.
Modeling techniques can also be used with groups, saving time and money in
treating people with the same problem. Modeling techniques can be helpful with
phobias, obsessive compulsive disorders, and sexual dysfunctions, and the
positive effects have been reported to last years.
2.
Fear of medical treatment can be helped with the modeling approach. Children
were studied for anxiety with the use of direct observation, responses on selfreport inventories, and physiological measures. Those children who viewed
modeling tapes before hospitalization had fewer problems that the control group.
G.
3.
For some college students, test anxiety is so serious that their examination
performance does not accurately reflect their knowledge of the material being
tested. A model can talk about coping mechanisms to participants and they will
significantly perform better.
4.
Some educators, politicians, and even some psychologists have suggested that
behavior modification exploits people, manipulating and controlling them against
their will. However, Bandura believed that behavior modification does not occur
without the client’s awareness. Bandura emphasized that the client-therapist
relationship is a contract between two consenting individuals, not a relationship
between a sinister master-controller and a spineless puppet. Many behavior
modification techniques have derived from Bandura’s work. They have become
increasingly popular alternatives to psychoanalysis and other therapeutic
approaches.
Assessment and Research in Bandura’s Theory
1.
Like Skinner, Bandura focuses on behavior rather than on internal motivating
variables. He did not use assessment measures such as free association, dream
analysis, or projective techniques. Assessment of both behavioral and cognitive
variables is important in the social-learning approach to personality.
2.
Bandura favors well-controlled laboratory investigations in the rigorous tradition
of experimental psychology. Bandura used large study groups and his research
participants are selected and have shown diverse behavioral disorders, such as
phobias, alcoholism, fetishism, and sexual dysfunctions. The ages of the research
participants range from preschool through adult.
3.
In research, self-efficacy differs as a function of gender and age. Men score
higher than women in self-efficacy, but this declines in later years. For age, selfefficacy increases through the life span and then declines after age 60. People
with good physical appearance score high in self-efficacy and there is a significant
positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance. Career
choice and job performance were also linked to self-efficacy studies as with
physical well-being and health. In mental health issues, those with low selfefficacy rate high in depression, while enhanced self-efficacy and a sense of
control over life events are positively related to the ability to cope with stress and
to minimize its harmful effects on biological functioning.
4.
A group of people working together in a common enterprise to achieve common
goals may develop a sense of collective efficacy. Bandura and many other
researchers have demonstrated convincingly that in laboratory situations and in
the real world, seeing violence begets violence whether on television, in movies,
or in our homes, streets, and schools.