Tools for Improving Reading
Comprehension
P. David Pearson
UC Berkeley
www.scienceandliteracy.org
Goals for the day
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Part I
Introduce you to 10 research-based principles for
teaching and fostering reading comprehension
 (based on Duke, Pearson, Strachan, & Billman, 2011)
Discuss fewer (4 or 5) in greater depth
Break
Part II
 QnA about Part I
 Some other issues…
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Close Reading
Text Complexity
For more information about my views of
comprehension…

Duke, N., & Pearson, P.D. (2002) Effective Practices for Developing Reading
Comprehension. In S. J. Samuels and A. E. Farstrup (Eds.) What research says about
reading instruction (3rd edition). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Duke, N., Pearson, P.D., Strachan, S. & Billman, A. (2011) Essential
elements of fostering and teachng reading comprehension.. In S. J.
Samuels and A. E. Farstrup (Eds.) What research says to about reading
instruction (4th edition). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.

Underwood, T., Yoo, M., & Pearson, P. D. (2007). Understanding reading
comprehension in secondary schools through the lens of the four resources model,
in Rush, L.S., Eakle, A.J., Berger, A. (Eds.) Secondary school literacy: What research
reveals for classroom practice (pp 90-116). Urbana IL: National Council of Teachers
of English.

Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C.,
et al. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A
practice guide (NCEE 2010-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education
Evaluation and Regional Assistance.
For presentations and papers, go to www.scienceandliteracy.org
Survey
 Elementary?
 Secondary?
 College?
 What’s
the difference
Elementary Teachers Love
 Their
kids
Secondary Teachers Love
 Their
subjects
College Teachers Love
 Themselves
Why Comprehension?


Keep our curricular wits about us?
Keep the enablers separate from the goals
 Phonemic awareness may be important

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Phonics, which may be important

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But it is on the pathway to…
Critical reasoning, which may be important


But it is on the pathway to…
Comprehension, which may be important


But it is on the pathway to…
Word meaning, which may be important


But it is on the pathway to…
Word reading, which may be important


But it is on the pathway to
But it is on the pathway to…
Action to make our lives and democracy better
The Role of Enabling Skills
Paris’ terms
Pearson’s
terms
Functions
Reading
Writing
Enablers
Constrained
Mastery
Outcomes
Unconstrained
Growth
Means
Code and text
level tasks
Conventions
and Craft
Ends
Comprehension
& Critique
Composition
and Analysis
Why now?
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There is a new game in town (in the US)…
 Common core standards OR
 New or refined state standards
Teaching for understanding…
 But with high levels of accountability
More challenging curriculum for all kids
 In terms of both task and text
We’ll be overturning the Basic Skills Conspiracy:
 First ya’ gotta’ get the words right and the facts
before you can do the what ifs and I wonder whats of
the curriculum.
Replacing it with a Keep Your Eye on the Prize approach
 Skills are enablers to keep you on the road to meaning
and critique
So how do you design a comprehension curriculum
for teachers to enact in their classrooms?
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Goal
Set of Principles
Set of Practices to enact the principles
For presentations and papers, go to www.scienceandliteracy.org
The Goal: The Active, Critical Meaning
Maker
Confession: My Grandson
Tobias
From Stephen King

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
On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft, by Stephen King
He got it right about building what it takes to build a
model of reading
Listen as I read his words…
What can we learn from Stephen King
about building mental models?
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That writers leave us a lot on the printed page to work with,
but…
 writers expect us to fill in some of the details in building a
model of meaning.
That no two readers will ever build exactly the same mental
model
That our models will often be similar enough to allow us to
“talk about a text.” (we need to agree on the general frame
not the details)*
That some text details are more important than others
Question: Whose minds meet in reading?
 Reading is an inherently social activity
*levels of accountability in making meaning
My favorite: A debunking of the idea that the
meaning is solely in the text: From one of
the close reading heroes of the past: Mortimer
Adler—How to read a book

And that is exactly what reading a book should be: a
conversation between you and the author. Presumably he
knows more about the subject than you do; naturally,
you'll have the proper humility as you approach him. But
don't let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be
solely on the receiving end. Understanding is a two-way
operation; learning doesn't consist in being an empty
receptacle.The learner has to question himself and
question the teacher. He even has to argue with the
teacher, once he understands what the teacher is saying.
And marking a book is literally an expression of
differences, or agreements of opinion, with the author.
Rand (2002) Definition of Reading Comprehension:
The process of simultaneously extracting and
constructing meaning through interaction and
involvement with written language.
We use the words extracting and constructing to
emphasize both the importance and insufficiency
of the text as a determinant of reading
comprehension (Rand Reading Study Group,
2002) .
Kintchian-derived model…
3
Knowledge Base
Text
1
Propositions
Text Base
Says
2
Mental Model
Means
Experience
Macrost
Microst
Inference
ructure
ructure
Inside the head
Out in the
world
Pedagogical implications for CI
• Since the meaning is in this reader text interface,
we need to go dig it out…
• Query the accuracy of the text base to build up the
microsructure and the macrostructure.
– What is going on in this part here where it says…
– What does it mean when it says…
– I was confused by this part…
• Ascertain the situation model.
– So what is going on here?
– What do you know that we didn’t know before?
– What can we expect to happen next or What can we
expect the author to talk about next?
New and different

Most important: A new model of the
comprehension process
 Text (what the author left on the page)
 Text base (the version a reader creates on a
veridical reading)
 Knowledge (what the reader brings from prior
experience)
 Model of meaning for a text

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Dubbed the Situation Model (mental model)
A model that accounts for all the facts and resources available in
the current situation
What’s inside the Knowledge
box?
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World knowledge (everyday stuff, including social and
cultural norms)
Topical knowledge (dogs and canines)
Disciplinary knowledge (how history or astronomy
works)
Linguistic knowledge
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Phonology
Lexical and morphological
Syntax
Genre
Pragmatics (how language works in the world): Discourse,
register, academic language, intention
Orthography (how print relates to speech)
How does a reader build a text base?
Excerpt from Chapter 8 of Hatchet
“Some of the quills were driven in deeper than others
and they tore when they came out. He breathed deeply
twice, let half of the breath out, and went back to work.
Jerk, pause, jerk — and three more times before he lay
back in the darkness, done. The pain filled his leg now,
and with it came new waves of self-pity. Sitting alone in
the dark, his leg aching, some mosquitoes finding him
again, he started crying. It was all too much, just too
much, and he couldn’t take it. Not the way it was.

The pain filled his leg now, and with it came new
waves of self-pity. Sitting alone in the dark, his leg
aching, some mosquitoes finding him again, he
started crying. It was all too much, just too much,
and he couldn’t take it. Not the way it was.
“I can’t take it this way, alone with no fire and in the
dark, and next time it might be something worse,
maybe a bear, and it wouldn’t be just quills in the leg, it
would be worse. I can’t do this, he thought, again and
again. I can’t. Brian pulled himself up until he was sitting
upright back in the corner of the cave. He put his head
down on his arms across his knees, with stiffness taking
his left leg, and cried until he was cried out.”
Building a Text Base

“Some of the quills were driven in (into what? His
leg) deeper than others (other what? Quills) and they
(the quills that were driven in deeper) tore when they
(the deeper-in quills) came out (of his leg). He (Brian)
breathed deeply twice, let half the breath out, and
went back to work (work on what? Don’t know yet.
Suspense. Expect to find out in next sentence). Jerk,
pause, jerk (the work is jerking quills out) — and
three more times (jerking quills out) he (Brian) lay
back in the darkness, done (all the quills jerked out).

The pain filled his (Brian’s) leg now, and with it
(the pain) came new waves (what were the old
waves?) of self-pity. (Brian) Sitting alone in the
dark, his (Brian’s) leg aching, some mosquitoes
finding him (Brian) again, he (Brian) started
crying. It (the whole situation Brian was in) was
all too much, just too much, and he (Brian)
couldn’t take it (the situation). Not the way it (the
situation) was. (What way was the situation? Don’t
know yet. Suspense. Expect to find out in the next
paragraph.)

“I (Brian) can’t take it (the situation) this way (what
way? Still don’t know. Suspense), alone with no fire
and in the dark (now we know “this way” means
“alone with no fire and in the dark”), and next time it
(the next situation) might be something worse (than
this situation), maybe a bear, and it (the problem that
will define the situation) wouldn’t be just quills in the
leg, it (the problem) would be worse (than quills in the
leg). I (Brian) can’t do this (deal with the problem
situation), he (Brian) thought, again and again. I
(Brian) can’t “do this (deal with the problem
situation).” Brian pulled himself (Brian) up until he
(Brian) was sitting upright back in the corner of the
cave. He (Brian) put his (Brian’s) head down on his
(Brian’s) arms across his (Brian’s) knees, with stiffness
taking his (Brian’s) left leg, and cried until he (Brian)
was cried out.”
Some key moves in building a text base…
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Processing words and attaching meaning to them
Using syntax to solidify key relations among ideas
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Microstructure
Macrostructure
Resolving reference--things that stand for other things
(mainly pronouns and nouns)
Using logical connectives (before, after, because, so, then,
when, while, but) to figure out the relations among ideas
Inferring omitted connectives (e.g., figuring out that A is
the cause of B) based on PK about the world
Posing questions for short term resolution
Identifying ambiguities for later resolution (wait and see)
So how about building a situation model?
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The knowledge-comprehension relationship
We use our knowledge to build a situation model for
a text
The information in the situation model is now
available to become part of our long term memory
and store of knowledge
To assist in processing the next bit.
Situation Model for Hatchet Passage
The blurb from the jacket of Hatchet
gives a preview of the book:
Thirteen-year old Brian Robeson is on his way to visit
his father when the single engine plane in which he is
flying crashes. Suddenly, Brian finds himself alone in the
Canadian wilderness with nothing but his clothing, a
tattered windbreaker and the hatchet his mother has
given him as a present — and the dreadful secret that
has been tearing him apart since his parents’ divorce.
But now Brian has no time for anger, self-pity or despair
— it will take all his know-how and determination, and
more courage than he knew he possessed, to survive.
What a reader knows by Chapter 8
Brian is stranded in the Canadian wilderness with a
hatchet and his wits as his only tools for survival. He already
has overcome several obstacles, including surviving the plane
crash, building a small shelter and finding food.
In chapter eight, Brian awakens in the night to realize
that there is an animal in his shelter. He throws his hatchet at
the animal but misses. The hatchet makes sparks when it hits
the wall of the cave. Brian then feels a pain in his leg. He sees
the creature scuttle out of his shelter. Brian figures out that
the animal was a porcupine because there are quills in his leg.
Some prior knowledge that a 5th
grader might bring
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What sparks look like
How it feels to be scared by an animal
How big porcupines are
To survive you have to have food, water and shelter
To survive you have to be strong
An actual retelling of key parts of
chapter 8 from Sam, a 5th grade
reader

The same text for which we just examined the
text base…
Why is this model of iteratively
constructing and integrating so
important?
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The mental (situation) model is central to knowledge
construction
Building a mental model transforms new ideas and
information into a form that can be added to memory,
where they endure as knowledge that can be retrieved in
the future. Unless readers build a mental model, the
information they derive from the text is not likely to
connect to their stored knowledge. The new information
will be forgotten or lost.
Key role of knowledge:
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Knowledge involved in even the most literal of processing
Knowledge begets comprehension begets knowledge…
Knowledge is available immediately: dynamic store…
How can we help students build solid
text bases and rich and accurate
situation models?
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Do a good job of teaching subject matter in social
studies, science, mathematics, and literature
Don’t let reading remain our curricular bully!
Duke, Pearson, Strachan, & Billman,
2011
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Ten key practices
Can’t possibly touch on all of them today
Pre-publication copy available at
www.scienceandliteracy.org and on the website for
this organization.
Book available at reading.org
 S. J. Samuels and A. E. Farstrup (Eds.) (2011).
What research says to say about reading
instruction (4th edition). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Also on your website, available for download
Duke et al, 2011
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1. Build disciplinary and world knowledge.
2. Provide exposure to a volume and range of texts.
3. Provide motivating texts and contexts for reading.
4. Teach strategies for comprehending.
5. Teach text structures.
6. Engage students in discussion.
7. Build vocabulary and language knowledge.
8. Integrate reading and writing.
9. Observe and assess.
10. Differentiate instruction.
NUMBER 1: Build disciplinary and world
knowledge

Embedding
 Principle # 8—emphasize reading-writing
relationships
 Principle #7—teach vocabulary and language
NUMBER 1: Build disciplinary and world
knowledge
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The dilemma we face in teaching reading
 The more kids know, the better they understand.
 The more time we devote to reading, the less time
there is for social studies and science
 The less time there is for science and social studies,
the less kids learn and the less they know
The less they know, the harder it is for them to
comprehend
The cost of teaching reading better cannot be
teaching the disciplines worse
My solution: replace the vicious with
the virtuous cycle
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The more you know, the better you understand.
The better you understand, the more you learn.
The more you learn, the more you know.
The more you know, the better you understand.
Anon, anon, anon…
How to implement my solution
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MORE use of expository text in CORE programs
MORE reading, writing, and language instruction in
science and social studies
 Starting in grade K
 Reading, writing, and language as tools for acquiring
more disciplinary knowledge
 See www.scienceandliteracy.org for Seeds of
Science/Roots of Reading NSF Project.
Language Arts
Social Studies
Science
Mathematics
Our current view of curriculum
A model we like: Tools by Disciplines
Academic Disciplines………..
Science
Social
Studies
Mathe- Literature
matics
Reading
Writing
Language

Weaving is even a better metaphor than a matrix
Writing
Language
Reading
math
literature
Social studies
Science

Integration is tough…What happens when
you try to integrate reading and math?

The evolution of mathematics story
problems during the last 40 years.

1960's
 A peasant sells a bag of potatoes for
$10. His costs amount to 4/5 of his
selling price. What is his profit?

1970's (New Math)
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A farmer exchanges a set P of potatoes with a
set M of money.
The cardinality of the set M is equal to $10 and
each element of M is worth $1. Draw 10 big
dots representing the elements of M.
The set C of production costs is comprised of 2
big dots less than the set M.
Represent C as a subset of M and give the
answer to the question: What is the cardinality
of the set of profits? (Draw everything in red).

1980's
A
farmer sells a bag of potatoes
for $10. His production costs are
$8 and his profit is $2. Underline
the word "potatoes" and discuss
with your classmates.

1990's

A kapitalist pigg undjustlee akires
$2 on a sak of patatos. Analiz this
tekst and sertch for erors in
speling, contens, grandmar and
ponctuassion, and than ekspress
your vioos regardeng this metid of
geting ritch.
Author unknown

2000's
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Dan was a man.
Dan had a sack.
The sack was tan.
The sack had spuds
The spuds cost 8.
Dan got 10 for the tan sack of spuds.
How much can Dan the man have?

NUMBER 8: Integrate Reading and
Writing (and Talk)

How Reading Helps Writing
 Lots of models for different
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Text structures
Conventions of writing
Good word choice
How Writing Helps Reading
 Allows us to assess our understanding via notes
and summaries
 Serves as a mnemonic for remembering
 Engage in the same cognitive moves
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Coherence in writing => main ideas/details in reading
Questioning the author => critical reading
Invented spelling => phonemic awareness
Why Writing Helps Reading
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You can’t write without reading: the writer’s first reader.
When you write, you often seek information through reading
Writing makes the metaphor “constructing a model of
meaning” completely explicit.
Writing helps us decide what we really “think” about a topic
(stares back at you).
Writing makes metacognition transparent (makes monitoring
visible)
Teach important ideas and processes in
a multimodal environment

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Encounter a word
 Read
 Write
 Talk
 Do
Encounter a grammatical structure
 Read
 Write
 Talk
 Do
Great piece on Reading-Writing
Integration

Collins, J.L., & Madigan, T.P. (2010). Using writing to
develop struggling learners’ higher level reading
comprehension. In J.L. Collins & T.G. Gunning (Eds.),
Building struggling students’ higher level literacy: Practical
ideas, powerful solutions (pp. 103–124). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
7. Build vocabulary and language knowledge.
Words are Concepts
Shelter
Water
Food
Light
If we wish to
maintain a terrarium
in our classrooms, we
should establish
conditions that are
consistent with the
organisms’ natural
habitats.
Habitat
Desert
Forest
Shoreline
Recognition
Definition
Habitat: the
place where an
organism gets
the food, water,
light, and
shelter that it
needs to survive
Relationships
Habitat
Context
A habitat has
everything an animal
needs to survive.
The grassland habitat is
windy with few trees.
Application
Synthesis
All living things exist
within habitats and
have adaptations that
allow them to survive
in those habitats. No
one habitat can
support all living
organisms..

Vocabulary as conceptual networks
Vocabulary as labels for our
knowledge
decomposers are organisms that
live in the soil and
breakdown dead organisms
decomposers release
nutrients into the soil
most roots grow
in the soil where they
absorb nutrients and water
roots are an example
of a structure which is
an adaptation
plants are organisms
that live in the soil
organisms are living
things, such as plants
and animals
a habitat is where an
organism lives and
gets what it needs to
survive
adaptations are
structures and
behaviors that help an
animal survive
Model
Evidence
Observe

65
Model
Evidence
Investigate
Explain
Observe

66
Model
Investigate
Evidence
Explain
Observe
Tools
Record

67
Principle #5: Engagement
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Kids read better, write better, and learn more when
they are engaged.
They are more engaged when teachers apply these
principles of engaged learning
 Choice/Autonomy
 Self-efficacy (attributions of effort)
 Interest (knowledge)
 Collaboration
 Curricular coherence
Engagement: Choice
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What they read
What they write
How they represent themselves as learners
 Portfolios
 Choice among comprehension activities
Setting goals for learning
Engagement: Self Efficacy
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Monitoring and calibration
Attribution to effort not ability or fate
Entails
 Conscientiousness
 Stamina and persistence
Can do attitude
Engagement: Interest
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Other things being equal, kids can read a couple of
grade levels higher on topics of personal interest
Distinctions
 Personal interests
 Situational interests
Situational leading to personal interests
Engagement: Collaboration
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Other things being equal, students are more engaged
in partner or small group work than working on their
own.
Part of the portfolio of 21st Century Skills
Engagement: Curricular Coherence
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Relevance: Making connections to students’ lives
Cohesiveness: Connecting the parts within a unit
Transparency
 Making goals and assignments clear
 Ensuring necessary skills and strategies to complete
tasks
Principle #4: Teach strategies for
comprehending
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What strategies do we pick?
How do we teach them?
Picking strategies
NRP
 Duke & Pearson
 Routines such as Reciprocal Teaching or
Transactional Strategies Instruction
 Common Core Standards
 Good news
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Lots of overlap
No definitive set
Pearson & Duke, 2002
Making
predictions
Think-alouds
Using text structure
Summarizing
Question-generation
Drawing inferences
10 recurring standards for College and Career Readiness
Show up grade after grade
In more complex applications to more sophisticated texts
Across the disciplines of literature, science, and social studies
Oklahoma State Standards…

Standard 5: Comprehension/Critical Literacy –
The student will interact with the words and
concepts in a text to construct an appropriate
meaning.
From Oklahoma Standards…Grade 2

1. Literal Understanding
 a. Read and comprehend both fiction and nonfiction
that is appropriately designed for second grade.
 b. Use prereading strategies to preview, activate
prior knowledge, make predictions, use picture
clues, and establish the purpose for reading (i.e.,
graphic organizers).
 c. Ask and respond to questions to aid
comprehension about important elements of fiction
and nonfiction.
From Oklahoma Standards…

2. Inferences and Interpretation
 a. Make inferences about events, characters, and
ideas in fictional texts by connecting knowledge and
experience to the story.
 b. Support interpretations or conclusions with
examples taken from the text.
From Oklahoma Standards…

3. Summary and Generalization
 a. Retell or act out narrative text by identifying
story elements and sequencing the events.
 b. Produce oral or written summaries of text
selections by discussing who, what, when, where,
why, and how to identify the main idea and
significant supporting details of a text.
From Oklahoma Standards…

4. Analysis and Evaluation
 a. Identify cause and effect relationships in a text.
 b. Make comparisons and draw conclusions based
on what is read.
 c. Describe character traits, changes, and
relationships
From Oklahoma Standards…

5. Monitoring and Correction Strategies - Integrate
the use of semantics, syntax, and graphophonic cues
to gain meaning from the text.
 Example: semantic – Does it make sense?
 Example: syntax – Does it sound right?
 Example: graphophonic – Does it look right?
My assertion:

Every one of these clusters or individual practices can
be enated in a classroom under conditions of…
 Automatic Enactment: Nike model: Just do it!
 Strategic Enactment: Sherlock Holmes model:
Examine the strategy deliberately…
The evidence for Strategies
 Solid evidence of improvement on



specific strategies
content of the lessons
more general comprehension
Suites of strategies appear to be more effective
than a string of individual strategies
 It would be irresponsible not to teach them…
 But…

A few cautions with strategies



Like phonics rules, they can become
 an end unto themselves
 rather than a means to an end
Strategies are to be used strategically
 When comprehension breaks down
 Otherwise just do it: SKILLED reading
A strategy is just a skill under deliberate rather than
automatic control
 Nike reading
 Sherlock Holmes reading
Fresh Insights about Strategies
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Pressley’s work in early 2000s
New papers from the Handbook of Reading Research
 Most notably Wilkinson and Son
Metaphor from Pressley and Wilkinson & Son
 Set of waves
Wave Zero


Pre 1978: What Dolores Durkin found in her classic
study of comprehension instruction:
 NO instruction
 Assignment
 Assessment
 Rapid fire interrogation
Minnesota Course on Reading Pedagogy:
 Comprehension is caught, not taught
Wave One: Single Strategy Instruction





1978-now
Identify the strategies and teach them one by one
Pearson and colleagues at CSR
Paris, Lipson, and Wixson at the U of Michigan
Mosaic of Thought (still aligned with this approach)
Wave Two: Multiple Strategies at Once


1984 till now
Reciprocal Teaching is the classic example
 Small suite of strategies
 Regular recurring until they can be applied flexibly
Wave Three



1990-now
Transactional Strategies
Multiple strategies organized as a flexible tool kit
 haul out just the right strategy when the going gets
tough
Wave Four: Dialogic Teaching in the
context of rich discussions






Not sure when it starts…-now
Post explicit strategies approach
 Questioning the author
 Rich talk about text
Encounter opportunities to apply strategies on the fly
Make understanding the text at hand the real goal
Avoid decontextualized enactment of strategies
Invoke them to solve particular problems with text.
Wave Five: My hope for the future



Something in between explicit lessons, opportunistic
teaching, and mini-lessons (ala Whole Language)
Examples should ALWAYS be authentic
Lots of group problem solving with genuinely puzzling
examples
Wave Five: My hope for the future
 Ultimate
goal: Help students distinguish
between
 Nike reading

Just do it
 Sherlock Holmes reading
 Deliberate, intentional, methodical
 Solving a puzzle
Each of these can be taught and practiced in its automatic
mode: SKILLED APPLICATION
Each of these can be taught and practiced in its deliberate
mode: STRATEGIC ENACTMENT
Oklahoma State Standards for Reading



Each of
these can be taught and
practiced
in student
its automatic
Standard
1: Phonological/Phonemic
Awareness
– The
will
demonstrate
the abilityAPPLICATION
to hear, identify, and manipulate words, syllables,
mode: SKILLED
onsets, rimes, and individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words.
Standard 2: Phonics/Decoding – The student will apply sound-symbol
relationships to decode unknown words.
Each of3:these
can be
taught
andwill
practiced
in its
deliberate
Standard
Vocabulary
– The
student
develop and
expand
knowledge
ofmode:
words and
word meanings
to increase vocabulary.
STRATEGIC
ENACTMENT

Standard 3:Vocabulary – The student will develop and expand knowledge
of words and word meanings to increase vocabulary.

Standard 5: Comprehension/Critical Literacy – The student will interact
with the words and concepts in a text to construct an appropriate
meaning.

Standard 6: Literature:The student will read to construct meaning and
respond to a wide variety of literary forms.

Standard 7: Research and Information - The student will conduct
research and organize information.
How we know when strategies are
working…
A reminder: The ones I did not talk
about are also important…










1. Build disciplinary and world knowledge.
2. Provide exposure to a volume and range of
texts.
3. Provide motivating texts and contexts for reading.
4. Teach strategies for comprehending.
5. Teach text structures.
6. Engage students in discussion.
7. Build vocabulary and language knowledge.
8. Integrate reading and writing.
9. Observe and assess.
10. Differentiate instruction.
PDP and Zizi
PDP and Jane
Toby and Jane and the Sunday paper
The reasons I care about the quality of
public education and reading instruction
that leads to creative and critical thinking
Toby and Jane and Zizi