The more comprehensive
definition of research is:
Research is a scientific undertaking which, by
means of logical and systematized techniques
aims to:
 discover new facts or verify and test old
facts
 analyze their sequence, interrelationships
and causal explanations
The ultimate purpose of research is to:
Fill in gaps in information
Find answers to questions so far unexplained
Research is the systematic collection,
analysis & interpretation of data to
answer a certain question or solve a
problem.
Characteristics of research:
It demands a clear statement of the problem
It requires a plan
It builds on existing data, using both positive &
negative findings
New data should be collected as required & be
organized in such a way that they answer the
original research questions.
Research serves to major
purposes
First: Basic research is necessary to
generate new knowledge & technology
Second: Applied research is necessary to
identify priority problems & to design &
evaluate policies & programs.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A
RESEARCH TOPIC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Relevance
Avoidance of duplication
Feasibility
Political acceptability
Applicability
urgency of data needed
Ethical acceptability
What Stimulates People to
Undertake Research?
A person may be stimulated to undertake research
activities because of:
A genuine interest to add to the body of
knowledge and understanding
To create or develop new/better tools methods
programmes, equipments etc.
Others may undertake research as a means of
earning:
a livelihood
a better career or position,
an academic degree or
Self -gratification.
Why Learn Research
Methodology?
Whatever the reason for undertaking
research, the right way of doing it should
be learnt. No country is rich enough to
permit wastage. Disorganized pursuits are
wasteful and not desirable. This is true
also in research. No matter what the
reason be for undertaking a research
work, the investigator needs to learn
Contd….
Correct methods. Systematic &
methodical approach in important
for several reasons:
1. To obtained true & dependable
information
2. To obtained optimum output in
return for the input in terms of
money, material, human efforts &
time invested in the work.
3. To allow repeatability & there by
verification of findings.
Sequence of Steps in a Research
Work:
The steps involved in a research usually have
the following sequence:
Problem identification.
Knowledge gathering about the problem,
and finding the
lacunae in the existing knowledge:
Problem statement.
Precise statement of research questions or
hypothesis (es) formulation.
Statement of objectives of research.
Planning research.
Selection of research design and
methodology.
Contd…
 Planning data collection.
 Data collection.
 Data analysis, interpretation of findings and drawing of
inferences.
 Writing research report based on the data.
 Dissemination of research findings through publication of
report or presentation in a seminar.
 The total process of research is an unending cycle. In
true sense it may be considered helical, because ideas
generated from one research can be food for thought
and basis for further research.
A researchable problem (P) is
one where:
discrepancy between the expected (E)
and the actual (A)situation exists.
(P= E - A)
the discrepancy raises questions "Why?
….. and
there are more than one possible answers
to the questions.
Example:
Ideally we expect that all mothers
should breastfeed their infants for full
two years or even longer. But actually
few mothers do so i.e. there is a
discrepancy in the actual the expected
behaviour of mothers. Therefore we can
say that problem exists. This problem
raises several questions.
simple ones could be
Q.1. Why mothers do not breast-feed their
infants for 2 year OR
Q.2. What are the reasons for mothers
discontinuing breast feeding earlier than
2 years?
There can be more than one
possible answers to the
questions
Mothers do not have enough breast milk
after the first months.
Mothers have some infection or disease of
breasts or nip which hampers breast
feeding for a longer duration.
The babies do not tolerate breast milk well.
The mother may have a total dislike for
breast feeding baby and so on.
SOME SPECIFIC REASONS FOR
UNDERTAKING LITERATURE REVIEW:
Scientific literature is searched & reviewed to:
1. Better ‘know’ & understand the already known
facts & concepts.
2. Discovered what is a yet undiscovered i.e. to
identyfiy the unanswered questions & gaps in
information.
3. Avoid repettition of a work already done.
4. Find out about the research design, universe,
population, sampling unit, samplw size, sampling
technique, methods & procedures used by others.
5. Learn about difficulties & problems encountered &
how these were solved by other workers doing a
similar study.
Contd….
Critically analysis reported data to
discover fallacies & inconsistencies as
well as strengths.
Note the findings the other
researches for comparison with the
findings of the research in hand.
Tips on how to do a good literature
review
 Here are a few tips for the beginner:
 Be selective.
 SCAN the summaries and abstracts of the articles first
 and then "LIFT or LEAVE" the journal depending on
 whether the material meets your needs.
 Take prompt notes. Do not postpone note taking.
 Use small index cards to take notes and write journal

references on the reverse side.
 Use one card for each reference.
 Arrange and store the cards carefully (you can use an

empty I litre ice cream box for this purpose).
This statement should include a summary
of information so for gathered by him on:
Magnitude of the problem?
Time frame : when does the problem occur?
Which geographic area is affected more?
 Which population groups are affected more?
What are the probable reasons for the problem
to occur or
 persist? Are there controversies regarding
these reasons?
Contd…
Has any attempt been made in the past
for solving the
 problem ? If yes, what results were
obtained and to what
extent the problem was solved ?'What
remains to be solved?
What aspects of the problem s. have not
been. studied. in the past?
Relationship of research
question and hypothesis
There is often a debate on whether one
writes research questions or a hypothesis
for the study. Apparently contradictory,
they are in fact to sides of the same coin.
Hypothesis are nothing but the logical
assumed answers to the research
questions under exploration. As example
let us take the research question “why
mother do not breast feed their infants for
2 years?”
Research objectives may be
stated as:
General objective
 Ultimate objective and
 Specific objectives
General Objective:
General objective is a short statement that
tells in a summary form what will be (was)
done during the study.
Ultimate Objective:
 A statement that tells about the benefits/implicafions/
Wisafion
 of study findings ( if and when,they are put to use) it
called
 ultimate objective. In other wordsithis statement tells us
about
 the sign * ificance of the study and how it will help in
the policy
 decisions, future planning or actions with regards to the
 problem.
 Specific Objectives:
 Every research work involves several tasks. Statements
that tell about each task that will be (was) undertaken
during the research work, are termed as specific
objectives.
Some Research Jargons
 Population
 In research an aggregate of items (animate or inanimate) having common
traits is termed as population. Thus men, ponds, mango trees, cows,
houses, schools, hospitals or a collection of urine or blood specimens or any
other item may become population in research terms depending upon the
nature of research.
 2. Sample:
 The subgroup of population selected for an investigation to get an idea
about the population is termed as sample.
 3. Sampling Frame:
 All listed units or items constituting the study population are called the
sampling frame.
 4. Sample size:
 The number of persons or sampling units selected from the population of
the stucl'y comprise the sample size.
 5. Sampling Unift
 Each member of the sample is the sampling unit or unit of analysis.
 Sampling units a-bout which information is collected may be referred to
variously, depending upon the nature of study. The following terms are
com- man:
Variable
 In a preceding section we have mentioned that
hypotheses are the basis of research. We have defined
hypotheses as statements of researcher's assumptions
about the relationship between variables. It is essential
at this point that we understand the term variable.
Variables are 'characteristics or attributes that
may vary from person to person, place to place, or
from time to time. Any biological, physical, chemical,
social, behavioral or environmental characteristics can be
considered as variable in a research. e.g., age, parity,
temperature, pressure, pH level, education, occupation,
knowledge, skill, habits, ventilation etc. These are
factors which the researchers are often interested to
study. According to their role, variables may be termed
as independent, dependent or intervening.
Contd…
Dependent variables are the variables that
are influenced by other variables. In other
words they may be the results, effect or
outcome.
Independent variables influence, regulate
or cause the dependent variables. Note
the statements below:
The operational definition on the other
hand, differs from the dictionary meaning
Contd…
To have unbiased and generalisable findings,
appropriate sampling techniques and the right
sample size are essential. There are two main
ways of selecting a sample.
1. Probability sampling
2. Nonprobability sampling
1. Probability Sampling:
In this technique, the sampling units are so
selected that each unit in the sampling frame
has equal probability of getting included in the
sample. No unit receives preference over the
other or no unit is left out intentionally to tilt the
results in the direction that the researcher is
more inclined to accept.
Contd…
Probability Sampling, can be carried out using
any of the following techniques.
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Multistage Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Of the above five techniques, the simple random
sampling (SRS) if correctly carried out is the
most unbiased technique. The remaining four
are modifications adopted when simple random
sampling is hot practical.
Sample Size
 The number of sampling units necessary for a study has
to be determined prior to implementation of the study.
This decision has to be taken by the researcher, alone or
better still in consultation with a statistician. The
following three factors will influence the decision
regarding the total number of sampling units needed i.e.
sample size:
 1. Rate of prevalence in the population, of the disease or
condition to be investigated (the more prevalent the
condition the fewer the houses needed to be visited for
collection of data for the study and vice versa).
 2. Size of (standard) error acceptable to the researcher
(The smaller the size of the error acceptable to the
researcher, the larger the sample size needed and
vice-versa).
Contd…
 3. The degree of confidence which the researcher wishes
to have in his findings. (The greater the confidence the
researcher desires in his findings, the larger the sample
size he will need and vice versa). Statistically this level of
confidence is indicated by the term confidence interval or
confidence limits.
 All the above points can be shown in a simple equation as
follows:
n=Z 2 (p x q)
n=
d2
 Here Z is the confidence limit, p is the prevalence rate, q
is I-P (or proportion of persons not
 suffering from the disease), d is the acceptable standard
error and n is the required sample
 size.
Scales of measurements
question
 Attributes, characteristics or key factors of interest i.e. variables in a
study, may be of different nature. These variables can be measured
under four levels or scales of measurement as follows:
 1. Nominal

Used for categorical variables
 2. Ordinal

3. Interval

Used for numerical variables
 4. Ratio
 Each of these four scales is in ascending order of power over the
preceding one, and is suitable for different types of variables as
shown.
QUESTIONS THAT ARE NOT RELATED TO THE OBJECTIVES
OVERBURDEN THE QUESTION IT IS IMPORTANT
To be simple and clear
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cÖ‡dmit The cylindrical apparatus which supports your
vehicle is no longer inflated.
PvjKt&Avcbvi K_v Avwg wVK eyS‡Z cviwQ bv |
cÖ‡dmit The elastic fabric surrounding the circular frame whose
successive revolutions bear you onward in space has failed to retain
its pristine roundness.
 PvjKt eySjvg bv| Mo
 GKUv †QvU †Q‡j †gvUi Pvj‡K ejjt Avcbvi PvKvi nvIqv †ewo‡q †M‡Q|
 GZ¶‡b eyS‡jb †gvUi PvjK








Contd…
1.
The question should be of appropriate length (number
of question should be reasonable)
2. Question should be in logical order.
3. Length of the questions should be simple & clear.
4. Questions should be relevant to the hypothesis and
objective.
5. Easier questions should be asked first.
6. Questions should e specific not vague.
7. Embarrassing questions should be avoided or phrased in
a suitable language and wherever possible kept for a
relatively later part of the interview.
8. Arrangement of the questions should be such that the
preceding answer does not influence the answer to the
succeeding question.
9. Double barreled questions should be avoided
10. Do not ask questions suggestive of answers.
Parts of a questionnaire:
In general a standard questionnaire
consists of the following sections :
A title: Clear and brief.
An Introductory remark: Briefly telling
something about the survey and what is
expected from the respondent and
assurance about confidentiality.
Instructions: For studies involving
interviewers other than the