Asking Research Questions
Deductive, Inductive, and non-theory
driven research
Some Terminology
Page 18 of Course Packet
• Independent Variable (IV)-variable that the
research intentionally manipulates in order to
observe its effect on the DV.
• Dependent Variable (DV)- measure of
behavior used by the researcher t0 assess the
effects (if any) of the IV.
• (example: Effects of Caffeine on Fine Motor
Skills)
• Internal Validity- the degree to which
differences in performance (the dependent
variable) can be attributed unambiguously to
an effect of the independent variable. (aka
confounds or “threats to internal validity”)
• External Validity- the extent to which the
results of a particular research study can be
generalized to different populations, settings,
and conditions.
• Deduction (to deduce) - to derive as a
conclusion from something known or assumed
(to go from a general statement or theory to
specific predictions/observations)
• Induction- to assert or establish on the basis of
observation of particular (specific) facts (to go
from specific observations to more general
theory or statement)
• Theory-an explanation, usually in general
terms.
• Hypothesis/hypotheses- a specific, testable
statement, often a prediction about what you
expect to happen in your study.
• A theory explains events in general terms,
while a hypothesis makes a specific statement
about a specified set of circumstances.
Example: Theory/hypothesis
• “Theory”: Caffeine will negatively affect a
person’s ability to perform fine motor skills.
• “Hypothesis”: People will produce more
errors on a mirror drawing task as the number
of cups of coffee they drink increases.
• You use deduction when you derive a specific
hypothesis from a more general theory.
• You use induction when you take a set of
specific findings and produce a more general
explanation (a “theory”).
Theory Driven Research:
Deductive & Inductive Research
Programs
Page 19 of Course Packet
Theories serve two purposes in research:
• They guide scientific research by suggesting
research hypotheses. (Deductive Research)
• They organize empirical knowledge. (Inductive
Research)
These two purposes lead to two different types of
research (deductive and inductive), both driven by
theories.
• In Deductive research, the research uses
already established theories to deduce a
specific and testable hypothesis of the form
“I expect this will happen if……” (Deductive
hypothesis)
• In Inductive research, the research gathers
many specific findings (usually though
performing multiple studies) and then uses
these specific findings to create a more
general explanation (a theory).
• The hypothesis is of the form:
“I wonder what will happen if….” (Inductive
hypothesis)
The Cyclical Nature of Theory
Driven Research
Page 20 of Course Packet
Step1: Finding an interesting topic
• Intro Psych text
• Talk to others doing research in area of
interest
• Take a course, attend seminars or
lectures
• Do a literature search and read/explore
what is known about the topic.
Graham Wallas (1858-1932)
1926 The Art of Thought
Four stages of the scientific process:
1) Preparation
2) Incubation
3) Illumination
4) Verification
Stages 1-3 would all be part of the Step 1 in
the process of theory-driven research.
Step 2: Developing a Testable
Hypothesis (review)
Hypotheses can be of two sorts: Deductive and
Inductive
• Deductive Hypotheses are the way in which
theories guide research (Form: “I expect this
will happen if…”)
• while Inductive Hypotheses are the way in
which theories organize empirical knowledge
(Form: “I wonder what will happen if…”)
• A hypothesis cannot contain vague concepts
such as “mentally disturbed” or
“intelligence”. (need operational definitions)
• A hypothesis cannot be circular.
• A hypothesis is untestable if it appeals to
ideas or forces that are not recognized by
science (unobservable forces)
Step 3: Selecting a design and
evaluating ethics
• Different designs map onto the different goals
of a piece of research. (description, prediction,
etc.). Pick a design that fits your goal.
• Identify a target population and a sampling
technique.
• Perform a formal evaluation for ethical issues
via review boards (IRB or IACUC). Must be
done before ANY data are gathered, even
“pilot” data!
Step 4: Implement study in a way that
achieves unambiguous results
• Avoid “threats to internal validity”.
• Control some variables and yet strive for
high “external validity”.
Step 5:Collect and Summarize Data
Use descriptive statistics to summarize and
understand data.
• Measures of Central Tendency: mean,
median, mode.
• Measures of variability: range, variance,
standard deviation.
Step 6: Draw conclusions using
Inferential Statistics
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST)
• Parametric statistics such as Student’s t-test or
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
• Non-parametric statistics such as Chi-square or
Mann-Whitney U test
Step 7: Reject, Modify, Support
Based on your findings, you can choose one of
three options:
• Reject your hypothesis showing a lack of
support for your original theory or idea.
• Modify your original theory or idea based on
your findings.
• Support your original theory or idea based on
your findings.
Example
Step 1: topic- “Stress causes illness” (general
statement)
Step 2: Specific hypothesis- (thru operational
definition)- “I expect I will see an increase in
visits to UHS during exam week.” (Deductive
hypothesis)
Step 3-6: ethics approval, design choice,
summarize/analyze results. Find increase in
viral illnesses during exam week.
Step 7: Modify- Stress increases Viral illness
Non-theoretical Research
(Radical Behaviorism)
Non-theory driven research
B.F. Skinner, Radical Behaviorism
• When you run into something interesting, drop
everything and study it.
• Some ways of doing research are easier than
others
• Apparatuses sometimes breakdown
Theories are not necessary and can get in the
way of good research. Seek only to describe
the functional relationships between/amongst
variables
Goals of Scientific Research
Pages 40-49
1) Description: events and their
relationships are defined classified,
cataloged.
• Examples: DSM-IV TR 2000(diagnostic
statistical manual of mental disorders, IV
ed. TR 2000)
• Pace of Life Study (Levine 1990)
Pace of Life (Levine 1990) results
2) Prediction (correlation): occurs when
measures vary together (co-vary) in a
consistent way.
• Examples: GRE scores/undergraduate GPA as
predictors of success in a graduate school
environment.
• Ambady & Rosenthal (1993)
3) Explanation: (causal inference) requires
three conditions:
• co-variation of events-when one changes,
the other changes in a consistent way.
• time-order relationship- one event always
precedes the other. Antecedent-consequent.
• elimination of plausible alternative
causes- eliminate all “threats to internal
validity”
“True Experimental Design”
4) Application: research designed to solve a
problem, applied research
Quasi-experimental and Applied Behavior
Analysis