Methodological thinking through a
sociological mixed methods study:
Keep asking why questions
Michael Mu
Centre for Learning Innovation
27 July 2012
CRICOS No. 00213J
Queensland University of Technology
Outline 报告提纲
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Research questions 研究问题
Theoretical framework 理论框架
Critical realism 批判现实主义社会学范式
Quantitative study: Survey 量化研究
Qualitative study: Interview 质性研究
Results 研究结果
Do “Quant” and “Qual” talk to each other? 量化-质性相呼应
Summary 总结
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Research questions: 研究问题
RQ1. Is Chinese Heritage Language proficiency of young Chinese Australian adults in
urban Australia positively influenced by their access to various resources, the strength of
their “Chineseness”, or both?
RQ2. What does Chinese Heritage Language mean to young Chinese Australian adults in
urban Australia?
Behind research questions…研究问题背后
• Where do these questions come from?研究问题从何衍生？
• Why Chinese Heritage Language?为何研究汉语继承语言？
• Why Australia?为何选择澳大利亚情境做研究？
• Why Chinese Australians?为何研究澳大利亚华裔？
• Why young urban adults?为何研究城市年轻人？
• What are the methodological implications of these questions?
研究问题对研究方法有何启示？
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Literature review文献综述
Social psychological perspective
Motivation
Ethnic identity
Bourdieusian perspective
Recast
Capital
Habitus
Reconcile
Complement
Investment
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Poststructuralist perspective
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Ethnic identity
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Theoretical framework理论框架
“[(habitus) (capital)] + field = practice” (Bourdieu,1989, p.101)
“[(惯习)(资本)]+场域=社会实践”(布迪厄,1989, p.101)
People make language choices as a form of their social practice according to
the positions (capital) and dispositions (habitus) they have within a given field
(Bourdieu, 1991). Language choices may generate products that respond to the
demands of a given field (Bourdieu, 1991).
Four forms of
capital
CHL proficiency as
linguistic capital
Chineseness as
habitus
Fields
Conceptual framework概念框架
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Why critical realism?为何选择批判现实主义
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Realist ontology and constructivist epistemology (Bhaskar, 2008)
现实主义本体论和建构主义认识论
Critical realist ontological map批判现实主义本体论认知图
Reality at three different levels (empirical, actual, and real)
事实的三个层面（经验层面、现实层面、真实层面）
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Theoretical links to Bourdieu 批判现实主义与布迪厄社会学理论的联系
 Agency & structure 能动性与结构
 Habitus, capital, & field 惯习、资本、场域
Methodological links to Bourdieu 批判现实主义与布迪厄研究方法的联系
Tolerance of the combination of intensive and extensive research procedures
深度研究与泛式研究相结合
 “to grasp the particularity within the generality and the generality within
the particularity” (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992, p. 75)
 “statistics are bound to be abstract” and with the complement of
interviews and texts, profound phenomenon can be revealed “even more
clearly” (Bourdieu, 1996, p. 174)
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G=mg
What we experience and
observe at the empirical level
经验层面的观察和体会
What is happening independent of
our observation at the actual level
现实层面的正在发生
What is the mechanism
at the real level
真实层面的推动机制
Empirical data
in our research
研究数据
Actual problems in
our social world
现实世界
Real laws, rules,
and theories
真实定律
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Fallible empirical assumptions 对事实的错误认识
Son: I can’t see any whale.
儿子：我看不到鲸鱼！
Dad: There is no whale today.
父亲：今天没有鲸鱼。
Temperature and salinity of the
sea water are the major driving
forces for whale migration.
海水的温度和盐度是鲸鱼迁徙
的主要原因。
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The initial quantitative study: Survey
量化研究：调研法
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RQ1 and hypotheses研究问题和建立假说
Conceptual framework概念框架
Statistical modeling: Structural Equation Modeling结构方程模型
Instrument design (What) 研究工具设计
Target population (Who) 取样对象
Sample size and sampling (How many and how)
样本量和取样方法
• Ethics number: 1100000165 (Clearance until 10/02/2014)研究伦理
• Instrument development: Reliability and validity
研究工具改进：性效度
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Research question and null hypotheses:
研究问题和虚无假说
RQ1. Is CHL proficiency of young Chinese Australian adults in urban
Australia positively influenced by their investment of capital, the
strength of their habitus of “Chineseness”, or both?
H01. The habitus of “Chineseness” of young Chinese Australian adults
in urban Australia has no statistically significant positive impact on
their CHL proficiency.
H02. The investment of capital of young Chinese Australian adults in
urban Australia has no statistically significant positive impact on their
CHL proficiency.
Methodological thinking behind hypothesizing:
Why null hypotheses H0 instead of alternative hypotheses H1?
为什么建立虚无假说而不是对立假说？
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Conceptual framework that drives the examination
of RQ1 and hypotheses testing
支撑研究问题一以及假说验证的概念框架
Four forms of
capital
CHL proficiency as
linguistic capital
Chineseness as
habitus
Fields
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Why Structural Equation Modeling?为何选择结构方程模型？
• SEM is theory driven. 理论驱动
• SEM has the capability to assess reliability and validity.性效度检验
• SEM improves statistical estimation by accounting for unique
disturbances in the estimation process.减少测量误差
Statistical assumptions:
• Interval level of measurement
• Multivariate normal distribution
Chineseness = v9 × .18 + v7 × .21 + v4 × .21 + v3 × .16 + v2 × .23
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Methodological thinking behind instrument design:
• Operationalization: From theoretical concepts to measurable variables
操作化：从理论概念迁移到可测量变量
• Reflective model vs formative model:反映式与形成式模型
 Existence of latent variable潜变量的存在方式
 Direction of causality因果关系的方向
 Intercorrelations between indicators显变量的交互相关性
• What is the level of measurement? – Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
变量的测量水平：类别变量，等级变量，等距变量，等比变量
Why a 7-point Likert-type uni-polar scale?
为何采用里克特七点单向量表？
• Why online questionnaire?为何采用网络问卷？
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Population and target population:研究对象与取样对象
• Population: young Chinese Australian adults in urban Australia
• Target population: young Chinese Australian adults in urban Australia
 Range in age between 18 and 35
 Have had moved to Australia before the age of 13 if born outside Australia
Methodological thinking behind population framing:
• Why between 18 and 35?为何选择18-35岁？
17-33 (Levinson, 1978)
• Why before 13?为何选择13岁？
(Bhatti, 2002; Zhang, 2009)
• Why the Australian-born and the non-Australian-born can be
included in the same population frame?
为何澳洲出生与非澳洲出生的华裔可以在同一人群框架下研究？
(Cho, 2000; Cho, Cho, & Tse, 1997; Zhang, 2009)
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Sample size:样本量
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Different statistical models have different rules-of-thumb to identity the optimal
sample size.
There is a mathematical relationship amongst sample size, effect size, significance
level, and power value.
e.g. in regression,
 N ≥ L / f2, where f2 = R2 / (1 - R2) and L = 6.4 + 1. 65 × k - .05 × k2 (Green, 1991)
 significance level .05 / power value .80 (Cohen, 1992)
 effect size .02, .15, .35 (Cohen, 1988)
 G-Power software
SEM in general requires a larger sample size.
Unfortunately, there is a lack of agreement on the exact meaning of “a larger sample
size”.
It is recommended that the sample size be no less than 200 in order to provide reliable
results (Bentler & Chou, 1987).
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Why snowball sampling?为何采用滚雪球取样法？
• Possibility sampling (e.g. simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified sampling, or cluster
sampling) is practically impossible for the current research.
• Snowball sampling is commonly done when the participants
are rare and thus difficult to access or identify (Nardi,
2006), for example, in heritage research (Gibbs & Hines,
1992; Hall, 1992; Kiang, 2008; Pao, Wong, & TeubenRowe, 1997; Root, 1992).
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Population
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Target population
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Sample
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Instrument development:研究工具改进
• Pilot study: Internal consistency reliability and face validity
初测：内部一致性信度和表面效度
• Measurement models: Reliability and validity
测量模型的信效度
 Four measures of reliability四项信度指标
 SMC: Cutoff .50 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996)
 Construct reliability: Cutoff .50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981)
 Variance extracted: Cutoff 50% (Fornell & Larcker, 1981)
 Coefficient H: Cutoff .70 (Hancock & Mueller, 2001)
 Two measures of validity两项效度指标
 Construct validity: Unidimensionality (model fit)
 Convergent validity: Significant critical ratio
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The subsequent qualitative study: Interview
质性研究：访谈法
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Research question: 研究问题
RQ2. What does CHL mean to young Chinese Australian adults in urban Australia?
Why phenomenology? 为何采用现象学研究思想？
Thematizing: Conceptual framework that informs the broad topics to be investigated
主题化：由概念框架延伸出访谈主题
Designing 研究设计
 One-to-one semi-structured multiple interviews (Bourdieu, 1999)
一对一、半结构式、多次访谈
 Face-to-face, by telephone, or online
面对面、电话访谈、在线访谈
 Sample size: 1 to 10 for phenomenological studies (Starks & Trinidad, 2007)
现象研究中的被访人数：1-10
 Purposeful sampling: Extreme sampling and maximum-variation sampling (Patton, 1990)
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目的性取样：特殊案例取样和最大变化取样
Interviewing 访谈过程
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Conceptual framework that informs the formulation
of questions to be asked
Four forms of
capital
CHL proficiency as
linguistic capital
Chineseness as
habitus
Fields
Languages always produce the products that respond to the demands of a
given field (Bourdieu, 1991).
• What are the products produced by Chinese Heritage Language learning?
• Does Chinese Heritage Language practice produce any valued asset?
• Are these assets ‘capital’ or ‘habitus’?
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Methodological thinking behind interviewing:
• Power relations (Bourdieu, 1999)
权利关系 （布迪厄，1999）
• Researcher’s subjectivity: Why I am entitled to conduct this interview?
研究者的主体性：为什么我可以做这个访谈？
• Benefits: Reliability and validity
改善性效度
The interviewees seemed to consider this situation as an exceptional
opportunity to “make themselves heard” and to “carry their experience over
from the private to the public sphere” (Bourdieu, 1999, p.615). Their speech
seemed to convey “a joy of expression” (Bourdieu, 1999, p.615).
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Power relations (Bourdieu, 1999)
 Asymmetry of symbolic power and unequal distribution of capital,
“cultural capital in particular” (p. 609)
 “Active and methodical listening” (p. 609)
 Verbal “signs of feedback” or “response tokens” (p. 610), such as
“yes”, “right”, “oh”, and “ok”, as well as aiding explanations in a
proposed rather than an imposed way, such as suggestions to offer
multiple and open-ended continuations to the participants’
hesitations or searchings for appropriate expressions (pp. 614-615)
 Non-verbal means, such as an open posture, approving nods,
appropriate facial expressions, and good eye contact
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Why I am entitled to do this research?
 Two problematic extremes (Bourdieu, 1999)
 “Total divergence” (p. 612), where understanding and trust are
not possible
 “Total overlap” (p. 612), where nothing can be said and
questioned because everything goes without saying
 “Proximity and familiarity” between the researcher and the
researched (p. 610)
 Social difference between the researcher and the researched
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The subsequent qualitative study: Interview
质性研究：访谈法
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Transcribing 转录过程
 Reliability: Member check and participant check
 Validity: Reconciliation of “fidelity” and “readability” (Bourdieu, 1999, p.622)
“The transition from the oral to the written, with the changes in medium, imposes infidelities
which are without doubt the condition of a true fidelity.” (Bourdieu, 1999, p.622)
Data analysis 数据分析
 An ongoing and recursive process within phenomenological traditions (Mertens, 2005)
现象学研究中递进回归的数据分析过程
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 General sense – Meaning condensation – Coding – Categorizing – Themes
了解大意 – 精炼主旨 – 编码 – 分类 – 主题
Reporting: Whose accounts in which context?
数据汇报：特定情境下的特定记述
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Quantitative data analysis and findings
RQ1. Is Chinese Heritage Language proficiency of young Chinese Australian
adults in urban Australia positively influenced by their investment of capital,
the strength of their habitus of “Chineseness”, or both?
H01. “Chineseness” of young
Chinese Australian adults in urban
Australia has no statistically
significant positive impact on their
Chinese Heritage Language
proficiency.
a university for the
real world
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CRICOS No. 00213J
Quantitative data analysis and findings
RQ1. Is Chinese Heritage Language proficiency of young Chinese Australian
adults in urban Australia positively influenced by their investment of capital,
the strength of their habitus of “Chineseness”, or both?
H02. The investment of capital
of young Chinese Australian
adults in urban Australia has no
statistically significant positive
impact on their Chinese
Heritage Language proficiency.
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Qualitative data analysis and findings
RQ2. What does Chinese Heritage Language mean to young Chinese Australian
adults in urban Australia?
Theoretical Concepts
Economic capital
Benefits of CHL/
Meanings of CHL
Job opportunities
Chinese cultural goods
Understanding of Chinese culture
Chinese way of doing things
Cultural capital
Formal education credits
Social capital
Symbolic capital
Habitus
Field
Communication with family members
Communication with friends
Socialisation with people
Recognition by people
Awards
Coding criteria
Adam
Bob
Crystal
Dianna
En-ning
Convertible into money
Objectified cultural capital: Material
forms of cultural goods
Embodied cultural capital: Lasting
dispositions of mind and body, existing
in the form of schemata of perceptions
and actions
Institutionalised cultural capital:
Cultural competence with a
conventional, constant, legally
guaranteed value in connection to
certain institutions
Contacts and group memberships that
provide actual or potential support and
access to valued resources
Reputations for competence and
images of respectability and
honourability
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Embodied dispositions
Family roots
Unconscious dispositions
Conscious actions
Immanent propensities linked to
cultural history that drive the actions
both intentionally and unintentionally
Different values in different situations
A social place containing agents
struggling for positions by the control
of resources
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Do “Quant” and “Qual” talk to each other?
量化-质性相结合
• “Quant” and “Qual” research questions
Connection rather than separation
研究问题层面：相互关联而不相互分离
• “Quant” and “Qual” research methods
Combination rather than opposition
研究方法层面：相互结合而不相互排斥
• “Quant” and “Qual” research findings
Extension and confirmation rather than objection
研究发现层面：相互补充和确认而不相互对立
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Methodological map of this sociological mixed methods study
Paradigm / Worldview: Critical realism
Theoretical lens: Bourdieusian stance
Research
questions
Methodological approach: Mixed methods research
Bourdieu’s
theories
Research methods: Survey and interview
Research design: instrument, sample, analysis
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CRICOS No. 00213J
a university for the
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CRICOS No. 00213J