Qualitative Research
Approaches/Designs
HCO 628/728
Nataliya V. Ivankova, PhD
UAB School of Health Professions
and School of Nursing
Email: nivankov@uab.edu
Qualitative Research and Methods
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Qualitative research is a means for exploring and
understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.
The process of research involves emerging questions and
procedures; collecting data in the participants’ setting;
analyzing the data inductively, building from particulars to
general themes; and making interpretations of the meaning of
the data.
The final written report has a flexible writing structure.
Qualitative methods – techniques associated with the
gathering, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of
narrative information.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Key Characteristics
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Focus on understanding the
central phenomenon vs.
relationships among the
variables
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Data collection is in the field
– natural setting
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Data collection and analysis
is simultaneous: zigzag
process
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Emerging research design
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Inductive
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Constant comparative
analytical method
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Researcher is the primary
instrument of data collection
and analysis
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Research literature plays a
minor role in guiding the
study
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Interest is in both the
process and outcomes
Explaining or predicting variables versus exploring or
understanding a central phenomenon
Quantitative
Explaining or predicting
variables
X
Qualitative
Understanding or
exploring a central
phenomenon
Y
Y
The independent variable (X)
influences a dependent
variable (Y)
In-depth understanding of Y;
external forces shape and are
shaped by Y
When Designing a Qualitative
Study
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Focus on process as
well as outcomes
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Let the design emerge
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Study the phenomenon
in the natural settings
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Look for shared
patterns of
 experience
 behavior
 culture
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Use inductive reasoning
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Develop a complex and
in-depth understanding of
the central phenomenon
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study many ideas with
few participants and
sites
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Discuss the context of the
phenomenon
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Follow the “scientific
method”
Major Qualitative
Approaches/Designs
Major Qualitative Research
Approaches/Designs
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Narrative research
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Case study
Major Qualitative Research
Approaches/Designs
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Narrative research
 Key
questions: “What are the experiences in the
individual’s life? How do they shape this individual’s
life?”
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Phenomenology
 Key
questions: “What does this experience mean to
individuals? What meaning do individuals assign to this
experience?”
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Ethnography
 Key
questions: “What is the culture like for this group?
How does it shape peoples’ beliefs, behavior, and
experiences?”
Major Qualitative Research
Approaches/Designs

Grounded theory
 Key
questions: “How does the process work? What
theory can explain the process of individuals’
experiencing the phenomenon?”
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Case study
 Key
questions: “ What has happened? How do
individuals describe the phenomenon and their
experiences with the phenomenon?”
Differences Among Major
Approaches/Designs
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Discipline origin (single vs. multiple)
Types of research problems addressed
Study focus
Sampling strategies
Data collection strategies
Data analysis procedures
Nature of findings
Narrative/reporting approaches
Methodological
Dimension
Narrative
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
Ethnography
Case Study
Focus

Exploring the
life of an
individual

Understanding
the essence of
experiences
about a
phenomenon

Developing a
theory
grounded from
data in the
field
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Describing
and
interpreting a
cultural or
social group
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Developing an
in-depth
analysis of a
single case or
multiple cases
Data Collection
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Primary
interviews and
documents
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Long
interviews with
up to 10
people
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Interviews with
20-30
individuals to
“saturate”
categories and
detail a theory
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Primarily
observations
and interviews
with additional
artifacts during
extended time
in the field
(e.g. 6 months
to a year)
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Multiple
sources
including
documents,
archival
records,
interviews,
observations,
Physical
artifacts
Description
Analysis
Interpretation

Description of
the cultural
behavior of a
group or an
individual
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Data Analysis
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Stories
Epiphanies
Historical
Context
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Narrative Form
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Detailed picture
of an
individual’s life
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Statements
Meanings
Meaning
themes
General
description of
the experience

Description of
the “essence”
of the
experience
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Open coding
Axial Coding
Selective
Coding
Conditional
Matrix
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Theory or
theoretical
model
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Description
Themes
Assertions
In-depth study
of a “case” or
“cases”
Criteria for Choosing a Qualitative
Approach/Design
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Intent or focus
Study purpose and research question
Researcher’s philosophical assumptions or
worldviews
Researcher’s training
Discipline orientation
Audience
Study feasibility and resources
Phenomenology
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The purpose is to describe the meaning of lived
experiences for several individuals; what the
participants have in common as they experience
a phenomenon
 common,
everyday human experiences (e.g., love, grief,
stigma, sickness)
 experiences
with typical sociological and psychological
phenomena (e.g., having AIDS, experiencing caregiver
elder abuse)
 experiences
with common transitions or processes (e.g.,
caring for terminally ill relatives, coping with cancer)
Design Characteristics
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Focus is on understanding the essence or
structure of a phenomenon as described by
participants
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Grounded in philosophy of existentialism
 stresses
the individual's unique position as a selfdetermining agent responsible for the authenticity of his
or her choices
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Developing a composite description of the essence
of the experience that consists of “what” is
experienced (textural description) and “how” it is
experienced (structural description)
Design Characteristics
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Criterion sampling – having experience with the
phenomenon
 Heterogeneous
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group of participants (5-15 persons)
Multiple interviews, observations, artifacts (e.g., art,
poetry, music)
Asking two broad general questions:
 What
have you experienced in terms of the
phenomenon?
 What contexts or situations have typically influenced or
affected your experiences about the phenomenon?
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Bracketing personal experiences (epoche)
 researcher
puts aside, or “brackets” his or her own ideas,
feelings, perceptions, prior experiences
Phenomenology Example
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Amy Morgan (2007) – PhD Dissertation
“MIRROR, MIRROR: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL
STUDY OF THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN
TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL”
Purpose: “The purpose of this phenomenological
study was to explore the reflective experiences of
12 currently practicing elementary school
teachers working in a southeastern, suburban
school district in order to illuminate, from the
perspective of teachers, the meaning of reflection
in teaching.”
Research Questions
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Central question:
 What
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is the meaning of reflection in teaching?
Sub-questions:
 In
what ways do teachers experience reflection in the
context of the classroom?
 In what ways do teachers experience reflection in
contexts outside the classroom?
 What role does a teacher’s reflection play in the
experience of teaching?
 What role does experience play in a teacher’s reflection?
 What role does the school environment play in
teachers’ reflective practices?
The Essence of Reflection
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“Reflection is part of the rhythm of teaching. It is so
much a part of being a teacher that, often, teachers
cannot verbalize their experience with it. Much of the
reflecting that teachers do is a type of thinking on one’s
feet, allowing the response from students to inform their
instruction, and make adjustments on the spot. Along
with reflecting upon student learning, teachers also use
reflective practices to monitor their own teaching.
Effective teachers will reflect on their practice in any
setting, but a caring, nurturing, trusting environment is
the most conducive to the effective reflection that helps
teachers solve problems, adjust to changes, and
become lifelong learners.”
Grounded Theory
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The purpose is to develop a theory for an
action, a process, or interaction that is
“grounded” in the views of the participants
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Substantive theories about everyday
experiences
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Systematic grounded theory originated in
1967 with Glaser and Strauss as a contrast to
the a priori theoretical orientations in
sociology
Design Characteristics
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Theoretical sampling to help form the theory
 25-30
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Questions focus on the steps in the process
Saturation in data collection
3-step data analysis coding, and development of
logic paradigm or visual picture of the theory
 open,
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participants
axial, selective
Constant comparative method
Theory is presented at the end of the study in a
narrative statement, visual model, or a series of
hypotheses or propositions.
Grounded Theory Coding Process
Open Coding:
“What is this about?
“What patterns exist?”
Axial Coding:
“What is
the Relationship that explains
How the process works?
Selective Coding:
What implications
does it have?
Constant
Comparative
Grounded Theory Example
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Elizabeth Barstow (2012) – PhD Dissertation
How Older Adults with Age-Related Macular
Degeneration Living in a Southeastern Metropolitan
Area Develop Physical Activity Self-Efficacy: A
Grounded Theory Study
Research Question: How do older adults with AMD
living in a southeastern metropolitan area develop
Physical Activity Self-Efficacy?
Focus on: knowledge and beliefs about PA,
determinants of PA participation, strategies to
develop PASE, understanding of the process of
PASE development.
Contextual Conditions
Themes from Open Coding
 Physical Activity
(Characteristics & SelfEfficacy)
 Self-Management
of Health
 Physical Activity
Determinants
(Environmental,
Intrapersonal &
Interpersonal)
 Strategies to
Enhance Participation
(Vision & NonVision related)
Interpersonal Physical Activity Determinants- Care giving
roles, Authority driven, Reliance on others, Social support,
Social opportunities
Causal Conditions
Intrapersonal Physical Activity
Determinants- Knowledge,
Experience, Emotion, Physical
Self-Management BehaviorsDiet, Medication adherence,
Medical appointment adherence,
Abstains from substance use
 Self-Perceived
Benefits
Core Category
Self-Perceived
Benefits
 Intrinsic –
improved mental
and physical health,
increased
independence,
activity enjoyment,
feeling
 Extrinsic –
exposure to
environment,
exposure to others
Intervening Conditions
Environmental Physical Activity Determinants- Terrain, Safety of
Space, Facilities, Weather, Transportation
Axial Coding Paradigm of PA Self-Efficacy Development in Older Adults with AMD
Strategies
Vision
Related
Strategies to
Enhance
Participation
 Prepared
activities,
Familiar
with
setting,
Buddy
system
Non-Vision
Related
Strategies to
Enhance
Participation
 Combine
with other
activities,
Commitment,
Routines
Consequences
 Physical Activity SelfEfficacy
 Engagement and
Characteristics of Physical
Activity
Facilitatory
Intrapersonal PA
Determinants
Knowledge, Experience,
Emotion, Physical
Interpersonal PA
Determinants
Caregiver Role,
Authority Driven,
Reliance on Others,
Social Support,
Social Opportunities
Environmental PA
Determinants
Terrain, Safety of
Space, Facilities,
Weather,
Transportation
Inhibitory
Self-Perceived Benefits
Intrinsic-Improved Mental and
Physical Health, Increased
Independence, Activity Enjoyment,
Feeling
Extrinsic-Exposure to Environment
and Others
E. Barstow
Conceptual Model
of PA Self-Efficacy
Development in
Older Adults with
AMD
Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Physical Activity Participation &
Characteristics
Strategies to
Enhance
participation
Vision & Nonvision Related
Self-management
behaviors ?????
Diet, Medication &
Appointment
Adherence,
Abstains from
Chemicals
Case Study
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The purpose is to study an issue through one
or more cases in a setting or context (a
bounded system)
 explores
event, process or one or more
individuals in depth
 is bounded by time and activity
 a case is studied within a real-life, contemporary
context or setting
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Single vs. multiple case study
Case Study
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“The case could be a child. It could be a
classroom of children or a particular mobilization
of professionals to study a childhood condition.
The case is one among others…. An innovative
program may be a case. All the schools in
Sweden can be a case. But a relationship among
schools, the reasons for innovative teaching, or
the policies of school reform are less commonly
considered a case. These topics are generalities
rather than specifics. The case is a specific,
complex, functioning thing” (p. 2).
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Design Characteristics
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Focus is on in-depth understanding of the case to
present its substantive description
Purposeful sampling
Questions focus on understanding the context of the
case and the issue
Multiple sources of information
 interviews,
observations, document analysis, artifacts,
audio-visual materials
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Within-case and across-case analysis
 Case
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description and case themes
Report consists of a rich description of the case or
cases
Case Study Example
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Rucks, A., Mulvihill, B., Wingate, M., Ivankova, N.,
Jeong, S.J., Xie, P.
“Collaboration Among Tribal and State Maternal
and Child Health (MCH) Organizations: CATSO
Project”
 Funded
by grant from the Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation Public Health Service Systems (ID: 67623)
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Webinar: http://media.soph.uab.edu/mchwebinar20120827/collaborationamongtribalandstatematernal.swf
Study Design
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Mixed methods, two phase sequential
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34 states with federally recognized tribes in
2010
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Participants
 State
HRSA Title V Maternal and Child Health(MCH) and
Children with Special Health Care Needs (CSHCN)
directors in the study area
 Personnel
working in American Indian/Alaska Native
(AI/AN) organizations serving the MCH population in the
study area
Phase II - Multiple Case Study
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5 states with respondents from both Title V
and AI/AN organization/agency (“pairs”) working on MCH issues in the same
geographic area
 To
understand different points of view
Interviews
 Document analysis
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Integrating QUAN and QUAL Results
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The quantitative survey findings suggest
collaborative relationship were limited to the
discussion and exchange of ideas and information
among Title V and AI/AN MDH entities and were
low in density and average in intensity.
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Case study revealed that collaborative
relationships existed in a variety of forms ranging
from formal to informal, depended on multiple
institutional, contextual, and personal factors, and
were aimed at overcoming barriers and achieving
common goals.
Narrative
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The purpose is to study an individual and
his/her experiences as told to the researcher or
found in documents and archival materials.
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Providing first-person account of experiences
that are in a story format having a beginning,
middle, and end.
 chronology
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of the experiences (life course stages)
Forms of narrative research:
 biography,
autobiography, life histories, personal
experience story
Design Characteristics
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Focus is on the experiences of individuals that are
expressed in lived and told stories
Purposeful sampling - one or a few individuals are
selected
Questions focus on the processes in the individual’s life
Data collection – participants’ stories or narratives and
information about the context of the stories
Narratives are analyzed for key elements (time, place,
plot, and scene)
Stories are “re-storied” into a general framework
Epiphanies - turning points in which the story line
changes direction dramatically
Ethnography
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The purpose is to describe and interpret the culture
of a group
 shared
and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs
and language of a culture-sharing group
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Selecting cultural themes to study about the group
(e.g., enculturation, socialization, learning,
domination)
Realist ethnography – traditional approach used
by cultural anthropologists
Critical ethnography – advocating for the
emancipation of groups marginalized in society
Design Characteristics
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Focus is on developing a complex, complete description
of the culture of a group
Purposeful sampling – identifying an intact culturesharing group
Looking for patterns in culture-sharing group
Data collection – extensive fieldwork
 extended
participant observations of the group;
interviews, artifacts
 Gatekeepers; key informants
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Data is analyzed and interpreted from a cultural
perspective – cultural themes
Final product is a holistic cultural portrait of the group
Key Readings in Five Qualitative
Research Designs
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Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry:
Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design:
Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Fetterman, D. (1998). Ethnography: Step by step. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE.
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (2007). Basics of qualitative research:
Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3d ed.)
Questions?