Sovereignty and
the “Subject” of
Modern Politics
in Thomas Hobbes’
Leviathan (1651)
March 24, 2014. SU.
Destruction of Leviathan, Gustave Dore (1865)
Thomas Hobbes’ Philosophy
Heavily influenced by the scientific
revolution of the 17th C.
Studied Descartes’ geometrical method
and dualistic philosophy
Worked on Galileo’s theory of inertia
(and motion) and used this in his
“anthropology”
(1588-1679)
1)Natural philosophy – De Corpore
2)Study of man – De Homine
3)Civil philosophy – De Cive
Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy I
1) Hobbes tries to understand movements and interactions of
corporeal beings in general (bodies)
Materialist claim: “Incorporeal substance” is an oxymoron.
All being (the universe, Nature) is corporeal; all force that exists
or applied is corporeal (one body over against another)
Galilean claim: A body should have the same velocity and
direction unless a force acts upon it
If there is already velocity (movement) it has primacy to the
counter-action.
Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy II
2) From this initial, natural philosophy to the analysis of
movements and motivations of human beings as specific bodies
(a unity of cogitation and corporeality)
What keeps human beings in motion (in certain directions)?
What hinders this motion? What forces cause movement in
humans? What are the motivations?
The answer must be one body’s inner impulses, appetites,
passions, hopes, aversions, fears involving external bodies,
humans and objects alike.
Three moments in Hobbes’ philosophy III
3) What are the most irreducible, simplest, clearest, most distinct,
irrefutable ideas Hobbes can reach about Man’s passions?
[On nosce te ipsum, from Introduction]
“…let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly,
it serves him only with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that
is to govern a whole nation, must read in himself, not this, or that
particular man, but mankind, which though it be hard to do, harder
than to learn any language or science, yet, when I shall have set down
my own reading [of myself] orderly, and perspicuously the pains left
another, will be only to consider, if he also find not the same in
himself. For this kind of doctrine, admits no other demonstration.”
Certainty of geometrical axioms and demonstrations
Self-evident propositions serving as the basis of Hobbes’ philosophy
Hobbes’ “self-evident propositions” about Humans
“I obtained two absolutely certain postulates of human nature;
one, the postulate of human greed by which each man insists
upon his own private use of common property; the other, the
postulate of natural reason, by which each man strives to avoid
violent death.” (from De Cive, Epistle dedicatory)
Fundamental right of nature:
Survival, ensuring self-preservation, leading a “peaceful and
commodious” life
State of nature, pre-political state:
An environment utterly hostile to peaceful (co-)existence
Risk of violent death inflicted by the others
PRECISELY BECAUSE EVERYONE WANTS TO EXERCISE
THEIR RIGHT OF NATURE; SEEKS MORE AND MORE POWER
The State of Nature (pre-political state)
Everyone is equal and free; each governs himself; each claims right to
everything , even to the bodies of others; unchecked passions
“[In the state of nature, there is] no place for industry; because the fruit
thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation,
nor use of commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious
building; no instruments of moving, and removing such things as require
much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no
no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and
danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,
and short.” (Ch.13)
I have the right to kill or use you because I judge my survival or well-being
(natural right) requires it.
Homo homini lupus +
Bellum omnium contra omnes = Natural state of insecurity, lack of trust, fear
De Cive (1642)
Jesus delivering the
final judgment
(Religio)
Heaven (Imperium,
Dominion, Peace)
and Hell (Libertas,
State of Nature, War)
are on this earth
Natives with crossbows
and cannibals eating
a girl
Frontispiece made
by Jean Matheus
with input from
Hobbes
From bodies to man in his natural condition; then to the citizen, “subject”
of politics, civil union and peace (morally superior; rationally preferable condition)
By me kings reign, and rulers decree what is just. (Proverbs 8:15)
Example of the State of Nature: Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
The Miseries of War, Jacques Callot (1633)
Protestant States vs. Roman Catholic States
War of supremacy in the Holy Roman Imperial territory (Germany)
Example of the State of Nature: Factionism and Civil War
(Decomposition of the Body Politic)
English Civil War between Royalists and Republicans (1642-1651)
Battle of Naseby, 1645
Left: Oliver Cromwell (later Protector)
Right: Charles I (beheaded in 1649)
How to leave the State of Nature, of constant war?
Laws of Nature
Precepts, laws that human reason is able to infer or formulate without the aid
of religion or revelation
Rational principles or modes of conduct that should effect self-preservation
and well-being of the individual
Overarching principle: “Do not that to another, which you would not have
done to yourself.” (Ch. 15)
The 1st Law:
“Every man ought to endeavor peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it,
And when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and
Advantages of war.” (Ch. 14)
Condition of war for power and domination is pregiven.
Enter into peace with those who seek it like you.
(Concord with the natural right of self-protection.)
The Laws of Nature cont’d
The 2nd law:
“That a man be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace,
and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down the right to
all things, and to be contented with as much liberty against other men,
as he would allow other men against himself.” (Ch. 14)
Laying down their right to all things, competitors:
Make a (social) contract, enter into a covenant: Civil laws
(I’ll resign my freedom and power in the state of nature only if you do
the same thing)
The rights of all contracting parties are transferred to someone or to an
assembly (the sovereign)
This self-perpetrating, all-powerful sovereign is not accountable to the
contractors but ensures that the subjects abide by that contract
Trading natural liberty
and power to
Leviathan for law,
peace, order, and
security (political, civil
liberty)
Non est potestas
Super Terram quae
Comperatur ei.
(Job 41.24)
There is no
power on earth to be
compared to him.
Frontispiece designed
by Abraham Bosse in
collaboration with
Hobbes
The Artificial Body of Leviathan
“[Human] Art goes yet further, imitating that rational and most excellent work
of Nature, man. For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a
COMMONWEALTH, or STATE (in Latin, CIVITAS), which is but an artificial man,
though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection
and defense it was intended; and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul,
as giving life and motion to the whole body; the magistrates and other officers
of judicature and execution, artificial joints; reward and punishment … are
the nerves, that do the same in the body natural; the wealth and riches of all
the particular members are the strength; salus populi (the people's safety)
its business; counselors, by whom all things needful for it to know are
suggested unto it, are the memory; equity and laws, an artificial reason and
will; concord, health; sedition, sickness; and civil war, death. Lastly, the pacts
and covenants, by which the parts of this body politic were at first made,
set together, and united, resemble that fiat, or the Let us make man,
pronounced by God in the Creation. (Introduction)
FREE (and rational) ACT OF COVENANTING – FORMING LEVIATHAN.
AN ACT YOU CANNOT TAKE BACK and MUST ALWAYS ABIDE BY.
Imaging the Sovereign’s Body (Body Politic)
Unified, monstrous, and absolute, sternly gazing at us. We are supposed to
face him with awe. Potestas over the city. His torso the vanishing point,
artificial eternity?
The Subjects’ Bodies Forming the Sovereign’s Body
Over 300 bodies all facing the body, looking at the all-powerful Sovereign.
First sketch of the Sovereign’s Body (changed by Hobbes)
Two bodies of the Sovereign and the “Subject”
His own body synonymous
with the Commonwealth
Bodies that go into the making
of this representative body
(recall the execution of
Charles I. Unacceptable.)
Enlarged definition of the
“Subject” of modern politics:
Subjects authorize/make a
Sovereign (agency)
They willingly subject
themselves to this absolute
sovereign for the sake of law
and order