The Importance of Qualitative
Research in Mixed Methods:
Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western
Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014
Topics for this session
• Five approaches to qualitative research
• Data collection, field issues, ethics
• A software program (MAXQDA)
Five Approaches to Qualitative
Research
SAGE book, 2013, 3rd edition,
“Qualitative inquiry: Choosing among
five approaches”
• Why I wrote the book
• How I chose the five approaches
• Defining characteristics of each of the five
approaches
Why I wrote the book
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•
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•
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Saw Harry Wolcott’s tree diagram (1992)
Saw Reneta Tesch’s flowchart (1990)
Saw Jacob’s types in Review of Educational Research (1987)
Interested in providing rigorous methods for students
Saw that the procedures differed – wanted to make
comparisons (hence final chapter)
• Recognized that most professors taught out of their own
background and training
Wolcott’s Tree
Choices of Approaches (types)
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•
•
•
•
Narrative (literature)
Phenomenology (psychology)
Ethnography (anthropology)
Grounded theory (sociology)
Case studies (evaluation, political science, law)
Illustrative journal articles
• Narrative – Chan’s study of a Chinese
immigrant student in Canada
• Phenomenology – Anderson & Spencer’s
study of how persons living with AIDS
image their disease
• Grounded theory – Harley et al.’s study of
physical activity for African-American
women
• Ethnography – Haenfler’s study of the
straight edge punk subculture of the
1980’s
• Case study – Asmussen and Creswells
gunman incident on a college campus
Primary Texts
• Narrative
– (Clandinin & Connelly; Riessman)
• Phenomenology
– (Moustakas; van Manen)
• Ethnography
– (Wolcott; Fetterman)
• Grounded theory
– (Strauss & Corbin, Charmaz)
• Case studies
– (Stake, Yin)
What is the research intent of your qualitative study?
Describing/analyzing
a bounded system
Individual,
program,
event,
process
Case
Study
Culturesharing
group
Ethnography
Reporting
individual
experiences
Generating a
Theory
Process,
action, or
interaction
Grounded
Theory
Individual
experiences
Collective
experiences
Phenomenology
Autobiography
Biography
Narrative
Research
Life
story
Features of Narrative Studies
• Researchers collect stories from individuals
• These stories tell individual experiences
• Stories are gathered through different forms of
data
• The stories are often shaped into a chronology
• The stories are analyzed often for themes
• The narrative told often contains turning
points
• The narratives are placed within specific places
or situations
Steps in Conducting a Narrative Study
• Identify one or more persons
• Draft a problem that documents the need to study this
individual
• Write broad research questions to explore events in
this individual’s life
• Collect data from individual and around (context)
individual
• Target significant events, epiphany, turning point
• Include your relationship to this person (reflexivity)
• Tell an interesting literary story
Features of Phenomenology
• Focus is on a single phenomenon
• Data are collected from individuals who have
experienced this phenomenon (often
interviews)
• Philosophy may be advanced as a rationale for
using phenomenology
• Researchers may bracket themselves out
• Data analysis leads to a description of the
essence of the experience
Steps in Conducting Phenomenology
• Identify and label a phenomenon that some people are
experiencing (e.g., grief)
• Pose a central question such as: What is (the
experience) for X individuals?
• Collect data from a small number of people who have
experienced the phenomenon
• Use phenomenological steps in analyzing the data
• Generate the “essence” of the experience—what all of
the people have in common
• Generate the situations in which they have
experienced the phenomenon.
Features of Grounded Theory
• Researcher seeks to explain a process (or action,
interaction)
• This process is presented as a theory
• Throughout the process the researcher memos
• Typically researchers collect interview data
• Data analysis helps to present the theory, often
as a visual model that explains the process
Steps in Conducting a Grounded
Theory Study
• Identify a theory (explanation) that needs to be developed
• Have this theory relate to a process or a specific action
• Write a research question beginning, “What theory
explains…this process…?”
• Collect data (e.g., interviews) from a number of individuals
that can help you develop the theory (who have
experienced the process)
• Systematically analyze the data for elements of the theory
• Present the theory (diagram, hypotheses, discussion)
• Discuss how it explains the “process” better than existing
theories because it is “grounded” in the views of the
participants
Features of Ethnography
• Focus is on describing the culture of a culture-sharing
group
• This group has been together for some time and has
shared patterns of behavior, ideas, beliefs, rituals
• What is learned about the group is often focused on
cultural concepts (e.g., communication patterns)
• Data are collected through observations and
interviews
• The ethnography presented indicates an
understanding as to how the group works
Steps in an Ethnography
• Locate a group of people who share the same culture
and who have experienced it together for some time
• Determine a cultural theme to explore with this group
• Pose a question such as, “How does this group work (in
terms of language, rituals, behavior, etc)?
• Collect observational and interview data and spend
time in the field collecting data
• Write a description of how the group works
• Write themes about how the group works
• Conclude by advancing how you have gained unique
insight into the group through your ethnography
Characteristics of Case Studies
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•
•
•
Researcher begins by defining a case
Within this case, the researcher explores an issue
The researchers collects many sources of data
The analysis focuses on a description of the case
and some themes
• Sometimes multiple cases are investigated, the
discussion shaped into a chronology, or
assessments across multiple cases
• The report presents an in depth picture of the
case(s) and the issues explored
Steps in a Case Study
• Identify an issue that needs to be studied
• Identify cases that will help to understand the issue (case
bounded by time/place)
• Pose a central question about “How an in depth analysis of
X cases will provide insight into an (issue)”
• Gather extensive, multiple forms of data to build a detailed
picture of the case
• Describe the case
• Present themes about the case
• End with an assertion about how the cases have informed
your issue
• Use detailed vignettes throughout
Criteria for Selecting a Qualitative
Approach
• What are you attempting to learn?
– The endpoint of the approaches differ
• Personal preference
– More formal vs more literary
• Audiences in your field
• Past experiences
Data Collection, Field Issues, Ethics
Types of Data Collection in African
Studies
• Interviews, observations, audio-visual
material, participatory approaches
• Appreciative Inquiry
• Photovoice
Appreciative Inquiry
• Look for what works and appreciate it
• Seeks the positive core of a living system
• Findings are grounded in real experience and
history
• Interviews to gather stories
• Participants then conduct more interviews
Photovoice data collection
• Photo elicitation techniques—photo elicits
critical thinking and discussion
• Participatory approach
– Participants take photos
– Examine photos and then discuss contents with
the researcher
• Participatory needs assessment or evaluation
(Wang & Burris, 1994)
Field Issues
Interviews
Observations Documents
Audio-visual
material
• Can be draining
to conduct
• Recording
equipment and
reliability of
audio
• Dealing with
sensitive issues
• The process of
questioning and
listening
• Transcribing
• Role of the
researcherparticipant or non
• Taking field notes,
recording quotes
• Maintaining role at
the site
• How to set up
camera shots
• Quality of audio
• Placement of
audio and video
equipment
• Locating
materials
• Obtaining
permission to
use material
• Working with
archives
Ethical Issues in Data Collection
Type of Ethical Issue
How to Address the Issue
• Respect the site and disrupt
as little as possible
• Avoid deceiving participants
• Respect potential power
imbalances and exploitation
of participants (e.g.,
interviewing, observing)
• Do not “use” participants by
gathering data and leaving
site without giving feedback.
• Build trust, convey extent of
anticipated disruption in
gaining access
• Discuss purpose of the study
and how data will be used
• Avoid leading questions;
withhold sharing personal
impressions; avoid disclosing
sensitive information
• Provide rewards for
participating
A Software Program (MAXQDA)
Software Tools for Analysis
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MAXQDA
NVivo
Atlas.ti
HyperRESEARCH
Software Tools for Data Collection
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Photo
Video
Fieldnotes
Field surveys
Apps
– KoBoForm, KoBoCollect
– MAXApp
– Atlas.ti Mobile
Why use qualitative software?
• Storing and organizing data
• Locating text
• Assisting with coding and organizing codes
efficiently
• Writing and storing memos
• Working in qualitative research teams, such as
multiple coders
• Retrieving data easily and comparing codes
• Developing visual displays for interpretation
and reporting
MAXApp
MAXApp Project
Storing Qualitative Data
Coding; Organizing Codes and Themes
Reporting and Visual Tools
Matrix of Codes by Variable
Code Relations Browser
Co-occurrence of codes within
interviews
Exploring relationships
Recommendations for Software
• Determine whether you should use qualitative
software
• Select the program you are comfortable using
that meets the features you need
• Store and manage your data in a software
program
• Organize your analysis (codes and themes)
• Create visual displays of your findings
Summary of Topics
• Five approaches to qualitative research
• Data collection, field issues, ethics
• A software program (MAXQDA)
The Importance of Qualitative
Research in Mixed Methods:
Part II
John W. Creswell, Ph.D., Tim Guetterman, M.A.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Presentation to the University of the Western
Cape, South Africa
April 17, 2014