Chapter 5 Lithography
1. Introduction and application.
2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.
Note: this chapter covers more topics and details than the textbook. But resolution
enhancement techniques (phase-shift mask, off-axis illumination…) and advanced
lithographies (electron beam lithography…) will not be covered – they will be covered
in NE 353 Nanoprobing and lithography.
NE 343: Microfabrication and thin film technology
Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo; http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~bcui/
Textbook: Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal and Griffin
1
History
• Historically, lithography is a type of printing technology that is based on the chemical
repellence of oil and water.
• Photo-litho-graphy: latin: light-stone-writing.
• In 1826, Joseph Nicephore Niepce in Chalon France takes the first photograph using
bitumen of Judea on a pewter plate, developed using oil of lavender and mineral spirits.
• In 1935 Louis Minsk of Eastman Kodak developed the first negative photoresist.
• In 1940 Otto Suess developed the first positive photoresist.
• In 1954, Louis Plambeck, Jr., of Du Pont, develops the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate.
Lithography stone and mirror-image
print of a map of Munich.
Lithography press for
2
printing maps in Munich
Lithography for art: the print principle
• Lithography is a printing process that uses chemical
processes to create an image.
• For instance, the positive part of an image would be a
hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would
be water.
• Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible ink
and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive
image and the water will clean the negative image.
3
Photolithography for IC manufacturing
• In IC manufacturing, lithography is the
single most important technology.
• 35% of wafer manufacturing costs
comes from lithography.
• The SIA roadmap is driven by the desire
to continue scaling device feature sizes.
• 0.7 linear dimension shrink every 3 yr.
• Placement/alignment accuracy 1/3 of
feature size.
Figure 5.2
Patterning process
consists of:
Mask design
Mask fabrication
Wafer exposure
Figure 5.1
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Chapter 5 Lithography
1. Introduction and application.
2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.
NE 343 Microfabrication and thin film technology
Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo
Textbook: Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal and Griffin
5
Light source: mercury arc lamp
Traditionally Hg vapor lamps have been used which generate many spectral lines from a high
intensity plasma inside a glass lamp.
Electrons are excited to higher energy levels by collisions in the plasma, and photons are
emitted when the energy is released. (electron effective temperature 40000K in a plasma!! )
g line =436 nm
i line =365 nm
(used for 0.5μm and 0.35μm
lithography generation)
High pressure Hg-vapor lamps
Order $1000, lasts 1000 hours.
• Filters can be used to limit exposure wavelengths.
• Intensity uniformity has to be better than several % over the collection area.
• Needs spectral exposure meter for routine calibration due to aging.
6
Light source: excimer laser
Decreasing feature size (to <0.35m) requires
shorter .
Brightest sources in deep UV are excimer lasers.
Excimer laser:
• In excimer lasers, two elements, e.g. a noble
gas and a halogen (from a halogen containing
compound), which can react and “bind”
together only in the excited state but not in
their ground states, are present.
• Providing energy will therefore drive the
reaction, creating the excimer.
• When the excitation energy is removed, the
excimer dissociates and releases the energy at
the characteristic wavelength.
• A pulsed excitation is used to repeat the
process.
Kr  NF 3  KrF  photon emission
energy
Eximer = Excited dimer
Xe* + Cl2  XeCl* + Cl
XeCl*  XeCl + DUV
DUV = deep UV, 308nm for XeCl laser
XeCl  Xe + Cl
Here “*” means excited state
KrF  = 248 nm (used for 0.25μm lithography generation)
ArF  = 193 nm (currently used for 45nm node/generation production)
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Light sources: summary
CD: critical dimension
Note: the numbers in the two tables are different, so they must be for different systems8
Photomask
Types:
• Photographic emulsion on soda lime glass
(cheap).
• Fe2O3 on soda lime glass (no longer in use?).
• Cr on soda lime glass and on quartz glass (most
popular).
(Quartz has low thermal expansion coefficient and low
absorption of light, but more expensive; needed for
deep UV lithography).
• Transparency by laser printer, more and more
popular for MEMS (resolution down to few m
with a 20000 dpi printer, very cheap).
Polarity:
• Light-field, mostly clear, drawn feature is opaque.
• Dark-field, mostly opaque, drawn feature is clear.
Three potential mask improvements:
Pellicle, antireflective coatings, phase-shift masks.
(we want 100% transmission, no reflection)
Light-field photomask
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Pellicle on a reticle (IC word for mask)
Pellicle film
Chrome pattern
Frame
Reticle
The particle on the pellicle surface
is outside of optical focal range.
Antireflective coatings
Pellicle film
Chrome pattern
Depth of focus
Mask material
Pellicle: (used only for IC manufacturing where yield is important)
• A thin coating of transparent material similar to Mylar is stretched over a cylindrical frame
on either side of the mask.
• The frame stands off the membrane at a distance of 1 cm from the surface of the mask.
• Purpose of pellicle is to ensure that particle that fall in the mask are kept outside of the
focal plane of the optical system.
10
Photomask (Cr pattern on quartz) fabrication
Laser beam writing:
• Similar to photolithography, but use a focused laser beam.
• It is a direct-write technique - no mask is needed.
• Resolution down to a few 100nm, cheaper than electron-beam writing.
(Cr is 100nm thick)
Remove the resist.
11
Photomask fabrication by electron beam lithography
quartz
12. Finished
12
Mask fabrication by photo-reduction (demagnification)
Minimum feature size 1-5m
This is similar to photography, where image is reduced onto the negative film.
13
Mask fabrication by photo-reduction
The beginning “artwork” is huge
(close to 1 meter) that can be
made easily by printing, the
final photomask is only order 1
inch with m feature size on it.
14
Mask to wafer alignment
• 3 degrees of freedom between mask and
wafer: x, y,  (angle)
Alignment mark on wafer created
from prior processing step.
• Use alignment marks on mask and wafer to
register patterns prior to exposure.
• Modern steppers use automatic pattern
recognition and alignment systems, which
takes 1-5 sec to align and expose.
• Normally requires at least two alignment
mark sets on opposite sides of wafer or
stepped region, and use a split-field
microscope to make alignment easier.
Alignment mark on mask, open
window in Cr through which
mark on wafer can be seen.
15
Use vernier for more precise alignment
Alignment problems: thermal expansion
Pattern on wafer
for alignment
ΔTm, ΔTsi = change of mask and wafer temperature.
m, si = coefficient of thermal expansion of mask & silicon.
Alignment
mark on mask
For example, for thermal expansion of 2ppm/oC
(silicon 2.6, fused silica/quartz 0.5 ppm/oC),
assume temperature change of 1oC, then the
distance between two features separated by
50mm will change by 2ppm or 100nm, which is
too large for IC production but OK for most R&D.
16
Chapter 5 Lithography
1. Introduction and application.
2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.
NE 343 Microfabrication and thin film technology
Instructor: Bo Cui, ECE, University of Waterloo
Textbook: Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal and Griffin
17
Three basic methods of wafer exposure
Figure 5.3
Less mask wear
No mask wear/contamination,
/contamination, less
mask de-magnified 4 (resist
resolution (depend on gap). features 4 smaller than mask).
Very expensive, mainly used for
Fast, simple and inexpensive, choice for R&D.
IC industry.
High resolution. But mask
wear, defect generation.
18
Contact/proximity exposure system (called mask aligner)
Hard to maintain contact or constant gap
when wafer/mask is not even/flat.
Resolution (half-period for grating
pattern) is given by:
R 
3
2

 g 

t 

2
g is gap (=0 for contact), t is resist
thickness, and  is wavelength.
4 objectives of optical exposure system
• Collect as much of radiation
• Uniform radiation over field of exposure
• Collimate and shape radiation
• Select exposure wavelength
19
Stepper (step and repeat system)
Die-by-die exposure
Feature size (typically)
4 reduction
UV light source
Shutter
Alignment laser
Shutter is closed during focus
and alignment and removed
during wafer exposure
Single field exposure, includes:
focus, align, expose, step, and
repeat process
Reticle (may contain one or
more die in the reticle field)
Projection lens (reduces the size
of reticle field for presentation to
the wafer surface)
Wafer stage controls
position of wafer in
X, Y, Z, 
20
Step and scan (stepper) exposure system: 193nm
193nm stepper systems are used today
for IC manufacturing.
Illuminator optics
Reticle library
(SMIF pod
interface)
Excimer laser
(193 nm ArF )
Beam
line
Wafer
transport
system
Reticle
stage
Auto-alignment
system
4:1 Reduction lens
Excimer laser: light is in pulses of 20ns
duration at a repetition rate of a few kHz.
About 50 pulses are used for each exposure.
Wafer
stage
Optical train for an excimer laser stepper
21
Step and scan (stepper) exposure system: 157nm
However, 157nm was not used for production and will never be used, because it needs
expensive vacuum (air absorb 157nm), and lens materials (CaF2) have much higher
22
thermal expansion coefficient than quartz (quartz absorb 157nm, thus unsuitable).