Labor Market Contracts and Work Incentives

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LABOR MARKET
CONTRACTS AND
WORK INCENTIVES
1
Hwei-Lin Chuang, Ph.D.
2014/05/21
受僱員工薪資調查統計之行業別平均
年份
經常性薪資(元)
非經常性薪資(元)
經常/平均薪資比
1985
13406.36
1677.82
0.889
1990
20662.52
4858.61
0.810
1995
29100.13
7450.49
0.796
2000
34265.12
8508.50
0.801
2005
35587.02
8695.14
0.804
2011
36623.46
9263.48
0.798
2012
37151.50
8455.92
0.815
2013
37526.58
8156.17
0.822
2
1. THE ECONOMICS OF FRINGE
BENEFITS
1) Employee Preferences:
a)
Two categories of benefits:
Payment in kind: compensation in the form of
some commodity, e.g., insurance, paid vacation.
Other things equal, people would rather receive
$X in cash than a commodity that costs $X.
However, ‘other things” are not equal. In kind
payments offer employees a sizable tax
advantage because for the most part, they are not
taxable under current income tax regulations.
3
b)
Deferred compensation: compensation that is
earned now but will be paid in the form of money
later on. E.g., pension benefits
Deferred compensation schemes enjoy a tax
advantage over current cash payments. Because of
lower income and special tax advantages given the
elderly, the tax rates actually paid are relatively low.
Note: With both kinds of benefits there is a loss of
discretion in spending one’s total compensation,
which tends to render fringes inferior to cash
payments in generating utility. On the other hand,
the special tax advantage of benefits as compared
with cash payments tend to increase the demand 4
for fringe.
PENSION PLANS
CLASSIFIED BY BENEFIT DETERMINATIONS
 Defined

Ex. 勞退舊制
 Defined

Contribution Plans 確定提撥制
Ex. 勞退新制、美國 401(k) plans
 Hybrid

Benefit Plans 確定給付制
Plans
Ex. 現金餘額養老金計劃(cash balance pension)
5
DB VERSUS DC PLANS

確定給付制 ( DB )
係指雇主透過精算方式預估所需之退休金給 付成本,再決定提撥期
間提撥率之制度。此一制度之優點為具有所得重分配的功能,可減少老
年生活的貧富差距,並賦予勞動者撫養退休人口的責任,且給付額度按
退休前之薪資而定,受通貨膨脹影響較小。惟其缺點在於目前人口老化
問題嚴重,撫養比例逐漸提高,勞動者的負擔將會愈來愈沈重;另退休
給付會受到工作年資、 薪資成長、通貨膨脹、員工異動率等影響,故難
以預知退休給付金額。另勞工如更換雇主,或是雇主不繼續雇用勞工,
則其年資中斷,無法領到退休金,對員工而言 相當不利。

確定提撥制( DC )
係指雇主及員工按月提撥一定比例之薪資, 存入勞工個人帳戶中,
等到員工退休時再提領個人帳戶中之基金收益。此制度之優點為員工離
職時可攜帶退休金,不必擔心因公司關廠或離職而領不到退休金,且員
工可自行監督雇主有無按期提存退休準備金,另雇主定期按照個人提存
比率提存,制度上較為公平。惟其缺點在於退休準備金是逐期提撥,易
6
受通貨膨脹影響,員工 所領之退休金無法因應老年退休生活所需。
HYBRID PLANS

混合制 ( Hybrid Plans )
通常是確定給付制 ( DB )但同時擁有確定提撥制( DC )
特性之制度。以現金餘額養老年金計畫( Cash Balance Pension
Plan)為例,此制度於退休時給付一筆特定金額(以一特定計
算公式依據個人之貢獻與薪資水平等作計算基準,類似DB制
度),然而同時亦提供一個虛擬個人帳戶,去累積個人退休基
金( 類似DC制度 )。
也就是說,如果你離開目前的雇主,你的個人虛擬帳戶可
以設算一筆固定金額的退休金,而這筆金額,你可以選擇轉入
你自己的個人退休帳戶( IRA),或是新雇主的退休計畫中。
相關資訊可參考下列網址:
http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/FAQs/faq_consumer_cashbalanceplans.html
7
勞退舊制 VERSUS勞退新制

退休金制度改制原因為舊制設計不良
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
請領條件嚴苛(企業平均壽命低於要求退休年資)
年資累計不利轉業
雇主退休金成本不易估計
雇主未提撥之罰則輕
中高年齡勞工就業不易
8
•
根據2009年三月底通過
之修正條文:
在同一單位工作十年以
上,年滿六十歲者亦可
自請退休。
9
10
REFERENCE
 勞動基準法
 勞工退休金條例
 行政院勞工委員會勞工保險局
http://www.bli.gov.tw/
 行政院勞工委員會勞工退休基金監理會
http://www.lpsc.gov.tw/
11
勞退業務概況

勞退新制(截至101年2月底)

1.提繳單位數:43萬5,728個

2.提繳生效中人數: 546萬6,612人

3.自願提繳人數:34萬6,032人

4.累計已收退休金:7,621億6,034萬餘元 (截至101年1月31日)

5.退休金核發件數:16萬3,639件

6.退休金核發金額:103億150萬餘元 (截至101年4月5日)

勞退舊制(截至95年7月底)

1.提繳單位數11.2萬家(較93年大幅成長104.17%)

2.累計餘額4,019億

3.累計退休人數39萬人

4.累計撥發金額3982.7億

5.平均每人退休給付金額101.7萬元
12
勞退業務概況之新舊制比較
(101年2月份資料)
勞工退休準備金(舊制)
勞工退休金(新制)
勞退準備金現有提
存戶數
124,342 提繳事業單位家數
勞退準備金有餘額
戶數
117,749 提繳人數
435,728
5,466,612
提存廠商開戶時員
工人數
3,404,241 平均提繳工資(元)
當期提存金額
4,378,959 應計提繳金額
12,233,134
當期撥發金額
3,090,824 實計提繳金額
11,350,949
累計提存金額(含孳
息、收益)
33,820
1,187,163,306 實際核發退休金件數
2,653
累計撥發金額
627,176,745 實際核發退休金金額
299,418
基金餘額(年月底數)
566,488,795 基金餘額(年月底數)
759,808,756
13
開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
 以開放體系台灣總體經濟計量模型分析勞工退休不同
提撥制度對台灣總體經濟之效果。
 台灣若自2002年開始實施勞工退休金個人帳戶制,在
四種不同設定下:

提撥率:甲(前二年每年提撥3%,第3年起6%)
乙(自第一年起即以6%提撥)

基金餘額利用效率:高、低
且勞工退休金之提撥由勞、資雙協議,對台灣總體
經濟之衝擊,長、短期效果不盡相同。
14
開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
 四種不同設定之勞工退休金個人帳戶制對後期實質產
出多有不等之正面效果,其中又以乙8案之正面效果
最大。
 由於勞工退休金部份由資方負擔,任何程度的經營成
本增加都不利民間投資,因此,在支出面及生產面都
受到負面衝擊在勞工個人帳戶制實施初期,勞工退休
領回之年金不多,對民間消費增加的效果遠不及廠商
投資之縮減效果。因此,短期退休基金對總體經濟正
面效果無法抵銷民間消費及廠商投資之縮減效果,整
體國內生產呈現負面效果,長期則反之。
15
勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型
 將管理勞退基金之機構視為準政府。
 勞、資雙方退休金之提撥視為民間對政府的移轉
支出。
 勞方退休後收到之退休年金及相關津貼視為政府
對民間的移轉支出。
 勞退基金注入貨幣市場時視為貨幣供給的增加。
→在總體經濟計量模型中,政府與民間的相互移轉
支出(收入)將影響家庭可支配所得、廠商投資
意願、勞動供給及政府財政。
16
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型
17
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
勞工退休金總體經濟計量模型

廠商因負擔勞退金之提撥,使投資意願降低,不利技術成長。

在勞退金制度實施後,退休之勞工將得到退休年金給付,增加
所得購買力,經由國內生產毛額之供需兩面,影響總體經濟各
部門及各變數。

因此,我們可同時看到短期與長期不同的動態效果:

短期動態效果:廠商因負擔勞退金之提撥,致投資意願降低,不利技術提升;
政府財政因勞退金之注入遠大於勞退金之給付,以致財政短期內獲得改善;因
此,勞退金實施初期,由於勞退基金規模相對小,對總體經濟部門的衝擊也不
會太激烈。

長期的動態效果:勞退金制度實施相當一段時間後,政府財政因勞退金之注入
量低於勞退金之支出量,使政府財政壓力增大,舉債提高,市場利率升高,不
利民間投資。惟退休後之勞工得到退休年金給付變大,有助民間所得購買力增
加,國內生產毛額受到正面影響,相抵之下,最後的結果端視市場利率升高及
民間所得購買力增加之淨效果。
18
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
勞
退
金
提
撥
與
總
體
經
濟

在無基金效果顯現時,即勞退基金不
增加該年貨幣供給,整體經濟將呈現
國內利率升、生產降、就業降及工資
降等負面衝擊。

在有基金效果顯現時,即勞退基金可
增加該年貨幣供給,整體經濟將呈現
國內利率降、生產增、就業增及工資
升的多項正面效益。
註
:
實虛
線線
為為
未有
實實
施施
勞勞
退退
金金
制制
度度
19
退休金之提撥分擔不同
對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較
經濟成長率
失業率
國民儲蓄率
民間利率
新台幣匯率
20
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
退休金之提撥分擔不同
對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較
經濟成長率
失業率
國民儲蓄率
民間利率
新台幣匯率
21
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
退休金之提撥分擔不同
對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較
經濟成長率
失業率
國民儲蓄率
民間利率
新台幣匯率
22
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
退休金之提撥分擔不同
對台灣總體經濟影響的綜合比較
經濟成長率
民間利率
失業率
國民儲蓄率
新台幣匯率
23
資料來源:開放經濟體系勞工退休制度之總體經濟計量分析
(何金巡、蕭麗卿、周麗芳、林建甫 2004)
2) Employer Preferences

Suppose employers are totally indifferent about
whether to spend $X on wages or $X on fringes,
then the composition of total compensation is a
matter of indifference to the employers, only the
level of compensation is of concern.

Suppose a firm must pay its workers $X per years to
remain competitive in both the labor and the product
markets.
→ The various compensation packages a firm is willing
to offer fall along the zero-profit isoprofit curve
drawn between wages and fringes.
24
Wage Rate
Employer’s Zero-Profit Isoprofit Curve
Nominal Employer Cost of
Fringe Benefits
The slope of the isoprofit curve is negative reflecting the fact that
the firm can increase fringes only if it reduces wages. In this case,
the isoprofit curve has a slope of –1, reflecting employer’s
indifference about the composition of compensation.
Note: By increasing compensation in the form of fringes rather than
wages, employers can often avoid taxes and required insurance
payments that are levied as a fraction of payroll. This will make
it more costly for an employer to increase compensation by 25
increasing salaries than by increasing benefits.
→A dollar spent on fringes could cost employers more or
less than a dollar nominally spent on wages or salaries.
When fringes enhance productivity more than a similar
expenditure on wages would, the isoprofit curve will
flatten. When fringes increase other costs or reduce
productivity, the isoprofit curve will be steeper.
Wage Rate
X
A
B
X
Nominal Employer
Cost of Fringe Benefits
26
3) The Joint Determination of Wages and Fringes
Wage Rate
X
Worker Y
WY
XX traces out the actual offers
made by all firms in this labor market.
Worker Z
WZ
FY
FZ
Nominal Employer Cost
X of Fringe Benefits
Those employees who attach relatively great importance to the
availability of current spendable cash will choose to accept offers
in which total compensation comes largely in the form of wages.
(such as worker Y) employees who may be less worried about
current cash income but more interested in the tax advantages of
27
fringe benefits will accept offers in which fringe benefits form a
higher proportion of total compensation. (worker Z)
Note: Because firms that pay high wages usually also
offer very good fringe benefits, it often appears
to the casual observer that wages and fringes are
positively related. Casual observation in this
case is misleading because it does not allow for
the influences of other factors, such as the
demands of the job and the quality of workers
involved.
28
2. THE COMPENSATION OF EXECUTIVES
There has been a lot of interest in recent years in
the salaries of high-level executives, such as chief
executive officers, or CEOs. American CEOs have
much higher salaries than their counterparts in
Germany and Japan. For example, the average
salary of the top 20 executives in the United States
is $4.8 million, as compared to $1.8 million in
Germany, and $530,000 in Japan.
29
1999年 董 事 長 薪 資 統 計 資 料
排名 產業別(樣本數 )
1
ind8(2)
2
ind314(37)
3
ind3(119)
4
ind317(41)
5
ind6(78)
環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、
出版業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。
資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資
料終端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、
電腦零組件製造業。
電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、
精密機械製造、及其他工業製品。
電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件
製造、被動元件製造業。
運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業
及不動產業。
建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問
服務業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商
服務業。
化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製
品、橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製
造、金屬基本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設
備製造配修業。
平均值
標準差
最大值
最小值
7941000
4823882
11352000
4530000
6987516
6146558
35561000
70000
5819706
5727460
39674000
0
5439781
6350059
39674000
0
5207227
5446836
32186000
125000
4940750
2174278
7335000
2981000
4203594
3121513
14677000
0
6
ind7(4)
7
ind2(105)
8
ind5(16)
批發、零售、及餐飲業。
4174288
2695108
11445000
24000
9
ind1(66)
食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家
具及裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。
3842774
2836575
13941000
76000
10
ind4(21)
水電燃氣業、營造業。
3765139
2151109
9736319
738000
11
ind316(14)
有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其
他通信器材製造業。
2721929
2173319
7556000
6000
30
資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士)
2000董 事 長 薪 資 統 計 表
排名 產業別(樣本數)
1
ind8(2)
環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版
業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。
資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終
端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組
件製造業。
電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製
造、被動元件製造業。
電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密
機械製造、及其他工業製品。
建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務
業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。
平均值
標準差
最大值
最小值
8545500
6158192.9
12900000
4191000
8291264
12372835
80806000
0
7225657
11326955
70916000
0
6786179
9735585
80806000
0
5608600
4117007.3
11231000
522000
2
ind314(52)
3
ind317(58)
4
ind3(176)
5
ind7(5)
6
ind6(81)
運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不
動產業。
5110894
4970794.5
30953000
180000
7
ind5(14)
批發、零售、及餐飲業。
4984263
2548457.2
11445000
1360000
8
ind2(116)
化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、
橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基
本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。
4503687
3417734.7
19054000
0
9
ind316(19)
有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通
信器材製造業。
4380743
2582013.5
9791000
18000
10
ind1(72)
食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家
具及裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。
3822326
3223166.4
19549000
0
11
ind4(23)
水電燃氣業、營造業。
3465417
2059382.9
7423000
0
31
資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士)
1999年 總 經 理 薪 資 統 計 資 料
排名
產業別(樣本數)
1
ind8(1)
2
ind314(26)
3
ind317(35)
4
ind3(99)
5
ind6(67)
6
ind1(46)
平均值
標準差
最大值
最小值
9703000
_
9703000
9703000
6517337
7424517
40016000
120000
5914440
5367500
30164000
1580000
5306580
5249470
40016000
28000
4564938
2889486
15560000
386058
4425384
3575602
22793000
30000
4404152
2900219
16655000
72000
3487333
887361.4
4406000
2635000
有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通
信器材製造業。
3466600
2296103
8032000
28000
環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版
業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。
資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終
端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組
件製造業。
電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製
造、被動元件製造業。
電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密
機械製造、及其他工業製品。
運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不
動產業。
食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家具及
裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。
化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、
橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基
本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。
建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務
業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。
7
ind2(81)
8
ind7(3)
9
ind316(12)
10
ind5(10)
批發、零售、及餐飲業。
3186174
1686555
6192000
1348000
11
ind4(17)
水電燃氣業、營造業。
2902130
1697768
6377776
300000
32
資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士)
1999年 總 經 理 薪 資 統 計 資 料
排名
產業別(樣本數)
1
ind8(1)
2
ind314(26)
3
ind317(35)
4
ind3(99)
5
ind6(67)
6
ind1(46)
平均值
標準差
最大值
最小值
9703000
_
9703000
9703000
6517337
7424517
40016000
120000
5914440
5367500
30164000
1580000
5306580
5249470
40016000
28000
4564938
2889486
15560000
386058
4425384
3575602
22793000
30000
4404152
2900219
16655000
72000
3487333
887361.4
4406000
2635000
有線通信器材製造、無線通信器材製造、其他通
信器材製造業。
3466600
2296103
8032000
28000
環境衛生及污染防治服務業、社會服務業、出版
業、廣播電視業、娛樂業及旅館業。
資料處理設備製造、資料儲存媒體製造、資料終
端裝置製造、資料輸入週邊設備製造、電腦零組
件製造業。
電子管製造、半導體製造、光電材料及元件製
造、被動元件製造業。
電力及電子機械器材,運輸工具製造配修、精密
機械製造、及其他工業製品。
運輸業、倉儲業、通信業、金融業、保險業及不
動產業。
食品及飲料製造、紡織業、成衣服飾品、家具及
裝設品、紙類、及印刷有關事業。
化學材料製造、化學製品製造、石油及煤製品、
橡膠製品、塑膠製品、非金屬礦物製造、金屬基
本工業、金屬製品製造、機械設備製造配修業。
建築及工程技術服務業、商品經紀業、顧問服務
業、資訊服務業、廣告業、及其他工商服務業。
7
ind2(81)
8
ind7(3)
9
ind316(12)
10
ind5(10)
批發、零售、及餐飲業。
3186174
1686555
6192000
1348000
11
ind4(17)
水電燃氣業、營造業。
2902130
1697768
6377776
300000
33
資料來源:高階經理人薪酬的揭露程度與公司治理-劉念琪(中央大學助理教授)、李思瑩(中央大學碩士)
1) The Principal-Agent Problem

The analysis of CEO compensation also raises a
number of important questions in economics. In
particular, what should be the compensation package
of a person who runs the firm, yet does not own it?

The CEO is an agent for the owners of the firm (the
owners are also called the principals). The owners of
the firm, who are typically the shareholders, want the
CEO to conduct the firm’s business in a way that
increases their wealth.
34

The inevitable conflict between the interests of the
principals and the interests of the agent is known as
the principal-agent problem. The structure of CEO
compensation can be interpreted in terms of a
tournament where the vice-presidents compete for
promotion, and where the winner runs the company.
This interpretation explains why the “prize spread” is
larger when executives are promoted to CEO than
when executives are promoted from junior to middlelevel management.
35
TOURNAMENTS
 Firms
award promotions on the basis of the relative
ranking of the workers.
 A tournament
might be used when it is cheaper to
observe the relative ranking of a worker than the
absolute level of the worker’s productivity.
 Workers
allocate more effort to the firm when the prize
spread between winners and losers in the tournament is
very large. A large prize spread, however, also creates
incentives for workers to sabotage the efforts of other
players or to quit along the way.
36
THE ALLOCATION OF EFFORT
IN A TOURNAMENT
Dollars
MC
Y
X
Flow
MRHIGH
MRLOW
Fhigh
Effort
The marginal cost curve gives
the “pain” of allocating an
additional unit of effort to a
tournament. If the prize spread
between first and second place
is large, the marginal revenue
to an additional unit of effort is
very high (MRHIGH) and the
worker allocates more effort to
the tournament.
37
2) The Link between CEO Compensation and Firm
Performance

There is a positive correlation between the
compensation of CEOs and the performance of the
firm, but the correlation is weak.

It is unlikely, therefore, that CEOs have the “right”
incentives to take only those actions that benefit the
owners of the firm.
38
3. INCENTIVE PAY
PAY SYSTEMS: PIECE RATES
 Piece
rates are used by firms when it is cheap to
monitor the output of workers.
 Piece-rate
compensation systems attract the most able
workers and elicit high levels of effort from these
workers.
 Workers
in these firms, however, may stress quantity
over quality, and may dislike the possibility that
incomes fluctuate significantly over time.
39
THE ALLOCATION OF EFFORT BY PIECERATE WORKERS
Dollars
MC
r
q*
qABLE
The piece rate is r dollars, so the
marginal revenue of an additional
unit of output equals r. The
worker gets disutility from
MCABLE
producing output, as indicated by
the upward-sloping marginal cost
of effort curve. The level of effort
MR
chosen by a piece-rate worker
equates marginal revenue to
marginal cost, or q* units. If it is
easier for more-able workers to
allocate effort to their jobs, they
Output
face lower marginal cost curves
and produce more output.
40
PAY SYSTEMS: TIME RATES
 Time
rates are used by firms when it is costly
or impossible to monitor the output of workers.
41
EFFORT AND ABILITY OF WORKERS IN PIECERATE AND TIME-RATE JOBS
Utility
Piece-Rate
Workers
Time-Rate
Workers
r
Worker A
x*
Worker B
Ability
All workers, regardless of
their abilities, allocate the
same minimal level of effort
to time-rate jobs. Because
more-able workers find it
easier to allocate effort, they
will allocate more effort to
piece-rate jobs and will have
higher earnings and utility.
Workers with more than x*
units of ability sort
themselves into piece-rate
jobs, and less-able workers
choose time-rate jobs.
42
BONUSES, PROFIT-SHARING, AND
TEAM INCENTIVES
 Unlike
piece-rate systems, profit-sharing programs
suffer from the incentive problems that afflict all
team efforts, particularly the free-riding problem.
 Evidence
suggests that profit-sharing plans increase
productivity.
43
WORK INCENTIVES AND DELAYED
COMPENSATION
 Upward-sloping
age-earnings profiles might arise
because delaying the compensation of workers until
later in the life cycle encourages them to allocate
more effort to the firm.
 A delayed-compensation
contract implies that at some
point in the future the contract must be terminated,
thus explaining the existence of mandatory retirement
in the labor market.
44
INDIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CONSTANT WAGE
AND UPWARD-SLOPING AGE-EARNING PROFILE
Earnings
C
B
D
VMP
A
0
t*
N
Years on
the Job
If the firm could monitor a
worker easily, she would get paid
her constant value of marginal
product (VMP) over the life cycle.
If it is difficult to monitor output,
workers will shirk. An upwardsloping age-earnings profile (such
as AC) discourages workers from
shirking. Workers get paid less
than their value of marginal
product during the first few years
on the job, and this “loan” is
45
repaid in later years.
EFFICIENCY WAGES
 Some
firms might want to pay wages above the
competitive wage in order to motivate the work force
to be more productive.
 The
efficiency wage is set such that the elasticity of
output with respect to the wage is equal to 1. That is,
efficiency wage is set where the marginal cost of
increasing the wage exactly equals the marginal gain
in the productivity of the firm’s workers.
 Efficiency
wages create a pool of workers who are
involuntarily unemployed.
46
THE DETERMINATION OF
THE EFFICIENCY WAGE
Output
Z
X
qe
q
Total Product
Curve
Y
0
w
we
Wage
The total product curve
indicates how the firm’s
output depends on the wage
the firm pays its workers.
The efficiency wage is given
by point X, where the
marginal product of the wage
(the slope of the total product
curve) equals the average
product of the wage (the
slope of the line from the
origin). The efficiency wage
maximizes the firm’s profits.47
WHY IS THERE A LINK BETWEEN WAGES
AND PRODUCTIVITY?
 A high
wage makes it costly for workers to shirk (i.e.,
they lose the wage if caught).
 People
who are well-paid might work harder even if
there is no threat of dismissal.
 Efficiency
wages reduce the quit rate and increase
output and profits.
 A firm
that pays efficiency wages attracts a more
qualified pool of workers, increasing the productivity
and profits of the firm.
48
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