1
Traumatic Brain Injury Module
for DSHS
Giles Gifford, EMT
Monica S. Vavilala, MD
ALS & BLS provider course
2
TBI Epidemiology: Nationally
• Yearly 1.7 million people sustain Traumatic Brain Injury,(TBI)
▫ ~1.36 million are treated in ED and discharged.
▫ 275,000 are hospitalized
▫ 80,000 to 90,000 are disabled
▫ 52,000 die
• Today, 5.3 million Americans (~ 2%) are living with TBIrelated disability and ~1% of people with severe TBI survive
in a persistent vegetative state
• In 2000, the estimated lifetime direct medical costs and
indirect costs (such as loss of life long productivity) from TBI
amounted to 60 billion dollars
3
TBI Epidemiology: WA State
Population; 6,664,195 - Jul 2009
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
• TBI ~ 10% of all injury related hospitalizations
• TBI deaths are about 29% of all injury related fatalities
• Nearly 123,750 residents with TBI related disabilities
• ~ 26,000 residents had TBI (2005–2009)
• ~ 5,500 hospitalizations and 1,300 deaths/year (2002–2006)
▫ You will see TBI patients in your career
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WA Epidemiology: TBI Causes
From 2003-2007, falls, being struck by an object, and motor vehicle related TBI injuries
made about 90% of all TBI related hospitalizations and falls, firearms and motor vehicle
related injuries made about 91% of TBI deaths.
5
WA Epidemiology: TBI Hospitalizations by Cause
• TBI Hospitalizations due to transport injuries of various types fell in the early years,
and then plateaued. Falls increased since the late 1990’s, explaining the overall rise
in TBI Hospitalizations. TBI hospitalizations by firearm injury remains low due to
the low survival rate from the initial injury.
6
WA Epidemiology: Elderly Fall Related TBI
• TBI related hospitalizations and deaths will steadily
increase over the next few decades as the baby-boom
generation (those born from 1946 to 1964) steadily ages
▫ 1 in 3 adults age 65+ falls each year
▫ 1 in 2 adults age 80+ falls each year
• 1 out of 5 falls causes a serious injury such as a head
trauma (TBI) or fracture
• Only 1 in 5 people who are hospitalized for falls ever
return home
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WA Epidemiology: TBI Hospitalizations by Age
Who is at Risk ?
Elderly
Age 15-24 years
Male gender
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Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
• Injuries to the brain caused by physical trauma to the head.
▫ Can be penetrating or blunt force injury
• Two forms of injury
▫ Primary
 Direct trauma to brain and vascular structures
 Examples: contusions, hemorrhages, and other direct
mechanical injury to brain contents (brain, CSF, blood).
▫ Secondary
 Ongoing pathophysiologic processes continue to injure
brain for weeks after TBI
 Primary focus in TBI management is to identify and
limit or stop secondary injury mechanisms
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Secondary Injury
• After initial TBI, priorities are:
▫ Identification of secondary insults
 Intracranial hypertension − from expanding
intracranial hematoma / brain swelling results in
elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) and/or herniation
 Hypoxia − from ventillatory/circulatory failure, airway
obstruction, apnea, lung injury, aspiration
 Hypotension − associated spinal cord injury, blood loss
 Inadequate cerebral blood flow can cause inadequate
oxygen and glucose delivery
 Hypercarbia− from inadequate ventilation, apnea
▫ Rapid transport to a capable health care facility
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Signs and Symptoms
Signs
•
•
•
•
•
•
diminished consciousness
convulsions or seizures
dilation of one or both pupils
slurred speech
repeated vomiting or nausea
increasing confusion,
restlessness, or agitation
Symptoms
headache
blurred vision
ringing in the ear
bad taste in the mouth
weakness or numbness in
extremities
• loss of coordination
• dizziness/lightheadedness
•
•
•
•
•
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Scene Awareness
• Include the following in the patient care report:
• Kinematics leading up to the injury
▫ MVC – speed, restraints, intrusion, helmet
▫ Assault – head vs. object, repeat assault?
▫ Sports related – body position, speed at impact
• Witness account of Patient Behavior after Injury
▫ LOC, slurred speech, inappropriate behavior, duration
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Documentation
• Complete documentation could have a positive impact
throughout a TBI patients life
▫ Diagnosis and Treatment after the injury may depend on
thoroughness of PCR
▫ Include events occurring pre and post injury and before
EMS arrival
• Ensure a successful hand off of the run sheet to the patient
care providers in the ED.
▫ After obtaining signature, if possible ensure a copy of the
PCR is included in the patient chart
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Documentation
• Specific items to document include:
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Mechanism of Injury/ LOC?
Primary symptoms/associated symptoms
Serial vital signs – HR, BP, RR
Component GCS and Pupils
Procedures preformed
Transportation decisions
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Assessment: Overview
Airway:
Priorities
Breathing:
Oxygenation
Hypoxemia
Circulation:
Hypotension
Shock
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS):
Priorities
Patient Interaction
Components
Motor Component
Score
Pupils:
Value
Pathophysiology
Abnormalities
Cerebral Herniation:
Indicators
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Airway: Priorities
• Determine that airway is open and maintain patency
• Assess need for artificial airway
• Reassess every 5 minutes and as needed
• Maintain cervical spine precautions
▫ Use cervical collar during transport
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Breathing: Oxygenation
• Assess rate, rhythm, depth, quality, and effectiveness of
ventilation (movement of air in and out of the lungs) every 5
minutes and as needed
▫ If possible use continuous SpO2 monitoring
▫ Avoid inadvertent hyperventilation
• If no SpO2 monitoring look for apnea and slow/irregular
breathing to indicate adequate tissue oxygenation and carbon
dioxide removal levels
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Breathing: Hypoxemia
• Assess and monitor for hypoxemia (SpO2 <90%) –
▫ Occurs in 40% of TBI cases
• If pulse oximetry not available, observe patient for indirect
signs of hypoxia
• Potential Signs and Symptoms of Hypoxia:
▫ Blue or dusky mucus membranes
▫ Impaired judgment
▫ Confusion, delirium, agitation
▫ Decreased level of consciousness
▫ Tachycardia-heart rate > 100 beats per minute for adult
▫ Cyanosis of fingernails and lips
▫ Tachypnea - At or above 20 breaths per minute for adult
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Circulation: Hypotension
• Monitor for hypotension - inadequate cerebral blood flow can
cause inadequate oxygen and glucose delivery
▫ Adult hypotension, systolic blood pressure (SBP) <90mm Hg
• Monitor for hypertension - may indicate raised ICP when
associated with bradycardia and irregular respiration
• Use correct cuff size to measure systolic and diastolic blood
pressure
▫ Cuff too small (false high or normal), too large (false low)
• Assess SBP every 5 minutes
▫ Continuous monitoring if possible
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Circulation: Shock
• It is very important to recognize the signs and symptoms of
shock and it is something that every EMS provider can do
• Signs and Symptoms of Shock:
Skin cyanosis, pallor
Restlessness, anxiety, change in level of consciousness
Tachycardia – rapid heart rate, greater than 100 beats per minuet
Tachypnea – rapid, shallow respiratory rate
Narrowed pulse pressure – reduction in the range between the
systolic and diastolic blood pressure
▫ Cool extremities
▫ Hypotension – SBP < 90 mm Hg
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
• If spinal shock is associated patient may be hypotensive
with bradycardia
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• If TBI patient takes anticoagulant medication/s this
information must be communicated to the receiving
facility and rapid transport should be initiated
•Anticoagulant medications include
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Warfarin - brand name Coumadin
Tinzaparin - brand name Innohep
Heparin
Enoxoparin
Dalteparin
Bivalirudin
Lepirudin
Argatroban
Desirudin
Fondaparinux
21
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS): Priorities
• GCS preferred method to determine level of consciousness
▫ AVPU (Alert, Verbal, Pain, Unresponsive) is too simple to
determine LOC & not quantifiable
• Follow ABC’s before measuring GCS
• If possible, assess GCS prior to intubation
• Measure GCS before administering sedative or paralytic
agents, or after these drugs have been metabolized
• Reassess and record GCS every 5 minutes
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GCS: Patient Interaction
•
GCS obtained by direct patient interaction
•
Pre-hospital provider must ask direct questions and
perform specific actions for accurate GCS score
▫ Do not simply say “squeeze my hands” (reflexive)
▫ Instead say “show me two fingers”
▫ The EMT needs to illicit a response that demonstrates
cognition, or the ability of the patient to think
•
If eye opening does not occur to voice, use axillary pinch
or finger nail bed pressure
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GCS: Components
• GCS should be measured by pre-hospital providers who
are appropriately trained
GCS 14-15: Mild TBI
GCS 9-13: Moderate TBI
GCS 3-8: Severe TBI
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GCS: Motor Component
• Important part of GCS
Motor Response
• Motor response was designed to look a
the best upper extremity response
6- Obeys
• Spinal cord injury, chemical paralysis or
excessive pain makes motor
assessment impossible
4-Withdraws from pain
5- Localizes-(purposeful movements
towards painful stimuli)
3 Abnormal flexion - Image A
• Abnormal posturing (decerebration &
decortication) look similar in the lower
extremities
A: Abnormal flexion (decorticate rigidity)
2-Abnormal extension - Image B
1-No response
B: Extension posturing (decerebrate rigidity)
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GCS: Value
• GCS provides basis for determining the method of
transport and the preferred receiving facility
• Compare to previous scores to identify trend over time
▫ A single field measurement cannot predict outcome
▫ Repeated GCS scores can be valuable to ED staff
▫ Deterioration of > 2 points is a bad sign
• GCS < 9 indicates a patient with a severe TBI and
require tracheal intubation
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Pupils: Value
• Pupillary size and their reaction to light should be used in
the field as it can be helpful in diagnosis, treatment and
prognosis
• A fixed and dilated pupil is a warning sign and
can indicate and impending cerebral
herniation
• Pupillary size should be measured after the patient has
been stabilized
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Pupils: Pathophysiology
• Why do pupils dilate?
▫ The presence of intracranial hematoma can cause downward displacement of
the brain, until it puts pressure on the cranial nerve responsible for pupil
dilation
• Other causes of abnormal pupils:
Hypoxia
Drug use (opiates)
Toxic Exposure
Orbital trauma
Pharmacological treatment,
(e.g. Atropine)
Hypotension
Hypothermia
Artificial eye
Congenital abnormality
Cataract Surgery
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Pupils: Abnormalities
• Unequal or dilated and unreactive suspect brain herniation
• Unilateral or bilateral pupils ▫ (asymmetric pupils differ > 1 mm)
• Dilated pupils ▫ (dilation more than or equal to 4mm)
• Fixed pupils ▫ (fixed pupil less than 1 mm change in
response to bright light)
• Evidence of orbital trauma should be recorded
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Cerebral Herniation: Indicators
• Unresponsive patient (no eye opening or verbal response)
▫ Unilaterally or bilaterally dilated or asymmetric pupils
▫ Abnormal extension (decerebrate posturing)
▫ No motor response to painful stimuli
• Deteriorating neurologic examination, bradycardia (heart
rate < 60 bpm), and hypertension should be viewed as a
part of Cushing’s response and implies impending
herniation
• Cushing’s Triad (Reflex) is a LATE sign of herniation:
▫ Elevated systolic BP
▫ Bradycardia
▫ Irregular respirations
30
Additional Considerations
•Patients with other illness/injury can have signs and
symptoms similar to those of TBI
•ETOH / drug abuse
•Sports related injury / concussion
•Violence / domestic violence
• Has your partner hit or grabbed you are two
questions EMT can ask to identify a possibly
abusive situation
•Decreased mental status in the elderly
•These patients can also have a TBI!
31
Treatment: Overview
Airway:
Priorities
When to intubate
Capnography
Ventilation:
Priorities
Hyperventilation
End-tidal CO2
Fluid Resuscitation:
Priorities
Vascular Access
Cerebral Herniation:
Signs and Symptoms
Hyperventilation
Additional Considerations
Pharmacological concerns
Bullet point key:
• Normal Text For ALS & BLS providers
• Text in Blue For ALS providers only
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Airway: Priorities
• Protect C-spine alignment with manual in-line
stabilization, beware facial trauma
• Maintain airway patency
• Administer O2
• If possible monitor with SpO2
• Provide combitube or supraglottic airway if not certified to
provide advanced airway adjuncts (according to county protocol)
• Indication for Intubation – GCS < 9
▫ Rapid sequence intubation with manual inline stabilization of
cervical spine.
• Intubation medications and doses per discretion of MPD
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Airway: When to Intubate
• Secure airway (e.g. endotracheal tube, cricothyroidotomy) if:
▫
▫
▫
▫
GCS < 9 in an unconscious and unresponsive patient
Unable to maintain adequate airway
Hypoxemia (SpO2 < 90%) not corrected by supplemental oxygen
Respiratory failure or apnea
• Intubate and normoventilate: (~12 breaths per min)
▫ If pupils are symmetric and reactive accompanied by localization,
withdraw, or flexion responses
• Intubate and hyperventilate: (~20 breaths per min)
▫ If pupils are asymmetrical (differ more than 1 mm)
▫ If dilated (greater or equal to 4 mm) and fixed
▫ If accompanied by extensor posturing or flaccid motor response
 Considered signs of herniation
 The motor component of the GCS exam is used to determine signs of
cerebral herniation.
34
Airway: Capnography
• EMS systems implementing endotracheal intubation
protocols including RSI should monitor blood pressure,
oxygenation, and when feasible end tidal CO2 (ETCO2)
monitoring (monitoring modality for ventilation)
• After intubation confirm placement of tube with lung
auscultation and ETCO2 determination
▫ Maintain ETCO2 35-40 mm Hg
• Obtain multiple ETCO2 readings
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Ventilation: Priorities
• Assess and record rate, rhythm, depth, and quality to
determine the effectiveness of respirations post intubation
• Assist ventilations as necessary with Bag Valve Mask and
supplemental O2
• Adult – normal ventilation rates: 10-12 breaths per minute
• Ventilate to maintain SpO2 > 90%
▫ Patients with TBI normoventilate
▫ Patients with TBI who are unconscious and unresponsive: intubate
and normoventilate
▫ Patients with TBI and suspected brain herniation: Hyperventilate
36
Ventilation: Hyperventilation
• Produces a rapid decrease in arterial partial pressure of carbon
dioxide by increasing the pH or basicity of the blood. Causes:
▫ cerebral vasoconstriction
▫ Decreased cerebral blood flow
▫ decreased intracranial pressure (ICP)
• In normoventilated, normotensive, and well oxygenated patients still
showing signs of cerebral herniation, hyperventilation should be used
as a temporizing measure and should be discontinued when clinical
signs of herniation resolve
• Prophylactic hyperventilation (PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg) should
be avoided unless signs of cerebral herniation
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Ventilation: End-tidal CO2
• Use ETCO2 to:
▫ Confirm endotracheal tube placement
▫ Measure the adequacy of ventilation.
 Target range: 35 – 40 mm Hg
▫ Guide hyperventilation therapy
 Hyperventilation: 30 – 34 mm Hg
 RR 20 BPM > 9 years (every 3 seconds)
 Severe hyperventilation: < 30 mm Hg
 ETCO2 < 25 mm Hg is not recommended
 Avoid inadvertent Hypocarbia
38
Fluid Resuscitation: Priorities
• Avoid hypotension and inadequate volume resuscitation
to maintain normotension and adequate tissue perfusion
▫ Hypotension (SBP < 90 mm Hg) doubles mortality
• Administer isotonic crystalloid solutions to maintain SBP
in normal range
▫ Use dextrose free isotonic fluid
 (0.9% NaCl or Lactated Ringers)
▫ Administer isotonic fluids to maintain >SBP 90 mm Hg
• Treat for shock as opposed to restricting fluids
▫ ETCO2 values may be low due to poor perfusion
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Fluid Resuscitation: Vascular Access
• Preferred percutaneous access site is forearm
• Intraosseous can be alternative route for vascular access
▫ For failed peripheral IV access
▫ For delayed or prolonged transport
• Transport should never be delayed to initiate IV lines
▫ Focus should remain on rapid transport
40
Cerebral Herniation: Additional Considerations
• Agitation and combativeness can increase intracranial
pressure. Optimize patient transport by using short acting
sedation, analgesia, and neuromuscular blocks, that are
concurrent with local protocol and medical direction
• Some of these treatments cause hypotension, consider
patients hemodynamic state and avoid hypotension
• Rule out decreased level of consciousness due to
hypoglycemia
▫ Hypoglycemia - blood sugar below 70 mg/dL
▫ Perform rapid blood glucose determination
 If necessary, give IV glucose
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Cerebral Herniation: Signs & Symptoms
• Signs Symptoms
▫ Dilated or unreactive pupils
▫ Asymmetric pupils
▫ A motor exam that identifies either
extensor posturing or no response
▫ Progressive neurologic deterioration,
decrease in GCS score more than 2
points from patients prior best score - in
patients with initial GCS < 9
• Other factors increasing ICP
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Fear and anxiety
Pain
Vomiting
Straining
Environmental stimuli
Endotracheal intubation
Airway suctioning
• Frequently re-evaluate patient neurologic status
42
Cerebral Herniation: Pharmacological concerns
Controversial brain targeted therapy
• Mannitol
▫ The pre-hospital use of Mannitol currently cannot be
recommended
• Hypertonic Saline
▫ This investigational therapy, while showing promise in
hospital, is not yet recommended for prehospital use
• Lidocaine
▫ No literature to support use of lidocaine as a single agent
prior to intubation
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Transport: Overview
Transport decisions:
Priorities
Priorities
Receiving facilities
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Transport Decisions: Priorities
• Minimize prehospital time by selecting appropriate mode
of transportation
• Patient may require emergent surgery for hematoma
evacuation, early transport must be the priority while
resuscitation is ongoing
• If necessary, rendezvous with air medical service to
decrease en route times
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Transport Decisions: Priorities
• All regions should have an organized trauma care system
• Protocols are recommended to direct EMS regarding
destination decisions for patients with severe TBI
• Improved success attributed to integration of prehospital
and hospital care and access to expedious surgery
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Transport Decisions: Receiving facilities
• Transport to appropriate receiving facility based on GCS
▫ GCS 14 – 15: Hospital Emergency Room
▫ GCS 9 – 13: Trauma Center
▫ GCS < 9: Trauma Center with severe TBI capabilities
• Patients with severe TBI should be transported to a facility
with immediately available:
▫ CT scanning
▫ Prompt neurosurgical care
▫ The ability to monitor ICP
▫ The ability to treat intracranial hypertension
47
References
• [author last name, first name], 2007. Guidelines for Prehospital Management of
Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, second edition, Brain Trauma Foundation,.
• National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians (NAEMT), 2011.
PHTLS: Prehospital Trauma Life Support, 7th ed., Elsevier Health Sciences,
Chap 9.
• Shorter, Zeynep, 2009. Traumatic Brain Injury: Prevalence, External Causes,
and Associated Risk Factors, Washington State Department of Health,
http://www.doh.wa.gov/hsqa/ocrh/har/TBIfact.pdf (April 1, 2011)
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011. Injury Prevention &
Control: Traumatic Brain Injury, http://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/
(May 1, 2011)
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Acknowledgements
• Mike Lopez, EMS/Trauma Supervisor; Washington State Dept. of
Health
• Mike Routley, EMS Specialist/Liaison, Washington State Dept. of Health
• Deborah Crawley, Executive Director and staff,
▫ Brain Injury Association of Washington
• Washington State EMT’s participating in focus groups and phone
interviews.
• Peer review: Andreas Grabinsky, MD, Armagan Dagal, MD, Deepak
Sharma, MD, Eric Smith EMT-P, Dave Skolnick EMT-B, Richard Visser
EMT-B
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Additional Slide: Hyperventilation
•Hyperventilation causes hypocapnia;
–important in reducing TBI morbidity/mortality
• As your RR  the expulsion of CO2 from the body also 
• This  in dissolved CO2 levels in the blood also  the pH level of
the blood
2H2O + CO2  H2CO3 + H2O  HCO3- + H3O+
• An increase in the reactants (CO2) will lead to an increase in the
products (H+) increasing the acidity of the blood
• Chemo receptors will detect decrease in blood pH
• The bodies automatic response is to dialate the blood vessels in
order to discharge CO2 faster and regain pH equilibrium
• Volumetric flow rate (Q = v • A)
• Increasing M/M from intracranial bleeding
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Audit Tool Indicators
Thorough Documentation Of:
• MOI
• Events leading up to injury
• Kinematics
• Witness accounts
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Initial Impression of Pt.
TBI signs and symptoms
Loss of Consciousness
Serial VS - Q5
Serial GCS scores – Q5
Pupillary exam – Q5
ETOH/ drug use
• C-Spine precautions
• Hypoxia Prevention
o Intubation indicators
o Serial Capnography values
o Post intubation RR
o Supported ventilation rate
o IV fluid initiation
• Glucose value
• Transport decisions
51
BLS to ALS Handoff
• First priority is to identify secondary insult
▫ Request medic eval. if TBI Pt is Showing S & S of:
 Intracranial Hypertension
 Hypoxia
 Hypotension
Check all of the following prior to ALS intervention:
• Blood Pressure
• Heart rate
• Respiratory rate
& effectiveness
• O2 saturation
•TBI associated S & S
• Level Of Consciousness
• GCS - component parts
• Pupils – component parts
• Glucose
52
BLS to ALS Handoff – Intracranial HTN
• Causes:
▫ Ruptured blood vessel
▫ Expanding Brain Bleed
▫ Brain Herniation – Mass
Effect
• Signs and Symptoms:
▫ HTN, N/V, HA Px, fixed &
dilated pupil,
▫  GCS score, Agitiation or
Combativness
• Cushings Triad
▫  SBP,  HR, Irreg. Resps.
ALS Interventions:
• Intubation & SpO2 monitoring
• ETCO2 monitoring
• Hyperventilation therapy
• IV therapy
53
BLS to ALS Handoff - Hypoxia
• Causes:
▫
▫
▫
▫
Vent or Circulatory failure
Airway Obstruction
Aspiration
Apnea with lung Injury
ALS Interventions:
• Intubation & SpO2 monitoring
• ETCO2 monitoring
• Signs & Symptoms
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
 GCS score/  LOC
Confusion, delirium, agitation
Cyanosis
Tachycardia > 100 BPM
Tachypnea - rapid, shallow RR
Blue/ dusky mucus membranes
Abnormal pupils
54
BLS to ALS Handoff - Hypotension
• Causes:
▫ Spinal cord injury
▫ Blood loss
ALS Interventions:
• Fluid Resuscitation
• SpO2 & ETCO2 monitoring
• Signs & Symptoms
▫ Tachycardia > 100 BPM
 If spinal cord inj. Pt. may have HR
▫ Tachypnea – rapid shallow breathing
▫ Hypotension < 90mm Hg
▫ Narrowed pulse pressure
▫ Abnormal Pupils
▫ Change in mentation
▫ Restlessness/ anxiety
▫ Cyanosis
55
Questions:
Topics:
1. Signs & Symptoms
2. Hypoxia & Hypotension
3. Hypoxia & Hypotension
4. Glasgow Coma Scale
5. Glasgow Coma Scale
6. Glasgow Coma Scale
7. Hyperventilation
8. Hyperventilation
9. Cerebral Herniation
10. Transport
56
Questions: Signs & Symptoms
• 1. The following are signs and symptoms of ETOH and not
Traumatic Brain Injury
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
A) Slurred speech, vomiting, loss of coordination
B) Dialated pupils, convulsions, diminished conciouness
C) Lower extremity weakness, blurred vision, agitation
D) All of the above
E) None of the above
57
Questions: Hypoxia & Hypotension
• 2. (True/False) Hypoxia and hypotension are recognizable
and preventable causes of secondary brain injury?
• 3. (T/F) Tachypnea, tachycardia, change in level of
conciousness, and cyanosis are all signs of shock, but not
hypoxia?
58
Questions: GCS
• 4. (True/False) – The motor component of the GCS focuses
only on the upper extremities?
• 5. What is the GCS score for a patient whose eyes open to
pain, withdraws from painful stimuli, and makes
inappropriate sounds?
▫ A) 3 + 4 + 3 = GCS of 10 (moderate TBI)
▫ B) 3 + 3 + 3 = GCS of 9 (moderate TBI)
▫ C) 2 + 4 + 2 = GCS of 8 (severe TBI)
59
Questions: GCS
• 6. To induce eye opening, prehospital providers may
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
A) Give patient a sternal rub
B) Give patient an axillary pinch
C) Use nail bed pressure
D) All of the above
E) B and C only
60
Questions: Hyperventilation
• 7. (True/False) Prophylactic hyperventilation - (PaCO2 <
35 mm Hg) should be initiated for every severe TBI
patient?
• 8. Patient presents with extensor posturing, fixed dilated
pupils, and SpO2 at 90%, EMT should ▫ A) Intubate and hyperventilate
▫ B) Intubate and normoventilate
▫ C) Administer 25 Liters/min non-rebreather mask
61
Questions: Cerebral Herniation
• 9. All of the following are signs/symptoms of cerebral
herniation except:
▫ A) Dilated pupils
▫ B) Extensor posturing
▫ C) Cyanosis of fingernails and lips
▫ D) Cushing’s Triad
62
Questions: Transport
• 10. Patients with severe TBI should be transported to a
facility with immediately available:
▫ A) CT scanning
▫ B) Prompt neurosurgical care
▫ C) The ability to monitor ICP
▫ D) Two of the above
▫ E) All of the above
63
Answers:
• 1. E) None of the above. Patients with other illness/injury can have
signs and symptoms similar to those of TBI
• 2. True - After initial TBI, priorities are Identification of secondary
insults including hypoxia and hypotension
▫ Perhaps the most important way a prehospital provider can impact
TBI outcome is the aggressive identification and treatment of hypoxia
and hypotension
• 3. False – Shock and hypoxia can have similar signs and symptoms
including all those listed
• 4. True – motor response was designed to look at the best upper
extremity response
• 5. (C) 2 + 4 + 2 = GCS of 8 (severe TBI)
64
Answers:
• 6. E) B and C only. If eye opening does not occur to voice, use axillary
pinch or nail bed pressure
• 7. False - Hyperventilation is a temporary treatment used only in
patients showing signs of herniation until definitive diagnostic or
therapeutic interventions can be initiated
• 8. A) Intubate and hyperventilate
• 9. C) Cyanosis of fingernails and lips is a sign of hypoxia
• 10. E) All of the above