‘Abilities are enduring characteristics
which underline a persons potential
to acquire skill in one sport or
another’
• Ability is something you are born with, it is
innate.
• Abilities are enduring (long-lasting)
characteristics which underlie a person's
potential to acquire skill in one sport or another.
• To be skilful in one particular sport requires
the person to have a specific profile of
abilities.
▪ perceptual ability - the ability to detect and use
different types of stimuli
▪ conceptual ability - the ability to think through skills
quickly
▪ gross abilities - the ability to move the larger parts of
the body quickly
▪ fine abilities - the ability to perform delicate
movements
▪ kinaesthetic ability - the ability to detect the
positions of your limbs in space
Finger
dexterity
Response
orientation
Reaction
time
Manual
dexterity
Response
integration
Speed of
movement
Those that involve processing information and
implementing movement
Static
Strength
Dynamic
Strength
Stamina
Explosive
Strength
Dynamaic
Flexibility
Trunk
Strength
Those that involve movement and often linked to fitness
"The learned ability to bring about predetermined results
with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay
of time or energy or both.“ Knapp
Learned
Aesthetic
Recognisable
Goal Directed
Characteristics of skill
Fluent
Consistent
Economic
Efficient
What perceptual skills does the player on the ball need to be
successful?
“ Skill is an organised, coordinated activity in relation to an
object or situation which involves a whole chain of sensory,
central and motor mechanisms” Welford
• Cognitive – skills that involve thought process and
intellectual ability. What to do, which action to use and
when!
• Perceptual – Skills that involve selecting, interpreting and
making sense of information from our senses.
• Psych-motor – movement decided upon and controlled by
the brain. Mixture of motor and perceptual.
Open
skills
Closed
skills
Unpredictable
environment
Predictable
environment
Decisions
to be made
No decisions
- same skill
Selfpaced
skills
Externallypaced
skills
Performer
decides when
to start
Start
determined by
outside agency
Performer
decides speed
of movements
Speed of
movement
decided by others
Discrete
skills
Distinct
beginning and
end
Serial
skills
Series of
discrete skills
Continuous
skills
Repetitive - no
beginning and
end
Gross
skills
Uses large
muscle
groups
Fine
skills
Uses small
muscle
groups
A simplified model
Input –
stimuli to
sense
organs
Decide –
what stimuli
mean and
what to do
Output –
motor
programme
runs
muscles



Stimulus identification stage
Decide what information represents
Response selection stage
Decide on an appropriate response
Response programming stage
Decide how to organise response
Sense
organs
Stimulus
identification
Response
selection
Response
programming
Muscles movement
Memory
Senses
Stimulus
identification
Response
selection
Feedback
Response
programming
Movement
43 main senses involved in sport
Eyes/vision/visual sense
Ears/hearing/auditory sense
Touch/proprioception
Body awareness / kinaesthetic sense
Three components/stages



Detection
Comparison
Recognition
Idea of single channel hypothesis

Short-term sensory storage

Short-term memory

Long-term memory
STSS – lasts 0.5-1 seconds; requires immediate
attention or is lost
 STM – only attended information; limited capacity
and duration; DCR occurs in STM; rehearsed
information goes to LTM
 LTM – unlimited capacity; requires rehearsal,
meaningfulness, speed of learning and overlearning
to be remembered/retrieved

Long-term memory
Short-term memory
Sense
organs
Stimulus
Perception
Feedback
Decision
Movement
(a) A basic information processing system consists
of perception, translation and effector control.
Explain what you understand by these terms, using
appropriate examples from volleyball.
(6 marks)
(b) Selective attention is an important part of
information processing. How can a coach improve a
player’s selective attention?
(3 marks)
Perception – make sense of incoming information;
e.g the ball has left the opposition server’s hand/equiv;
Translation – decision making;
E.g. the ball is at chest height I will use a set/volley/equiv;
Effector control – motor programme/doing the movement;
Send impulses to the muscular system in order for the
movement to be carried out;
E.g hands high/viewfinder/extend the legs.
(1 mark for description and 1 mark for appropriate example)
(d) Increase intensity of the stimulus/e.g’s;
Motivate and arouse the performer;
Highlight/ focus cues;
Learn to ignore irrelevant stimulus;

Response time
Time taken from initiation of
signal to completion of movement
Movement time
Time taken from start of movement
to completion of movement
Reaction time
Time taken from initiation of
signal to beginning of movement
Simple – single stimulus or single response
Choice – several stimuli or responses to be selected from
Hick’s Law – more choices more time needed to decide
Avoid repeating movements/same response – becomes
SRT for opponent – easy to react to
Choice RT – provide variety of responses – means
opponent has to select from many stimuli
Practice – develop as wide a range of actions as
possible
Unable to respond to second stimulus until first
stimulus has been responded to – because of single
channel
Basis of ‘faking’ or ‘dummying’
Give a signal concerning intended movement, then
move another way – opponent responds to first signal
before responding to second signal, by which time you
are long gone!
In team games such as basketball or netball,
performers need to make rapid decisions.
(i) Give an appropriate example from a team game of
simple reaction time and choice reaction time.
(2 marks)
(ii) The ‘Psychological Refractory Period’ often occurs in
team games. Explain, using an
example of this from a team game, how and why it
occurs.
(3 marks)
(i) SRT - movement to whistle/equiv;
CRT - movements of own players on court and who to
pass to/equiv;
(ii) The use of a deception/fake/dummy/in a named
team game situation/equiv;
Only process one item of information at a time/equiv;
Response to later information likely to be
delayed/equiv;
Due to responding to first stimulus.
3 functions



Change incorrect response
Reinforce correct response
Motivate performer
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of
performance
 Immediate/delayed
 Concurrent/terminal




Sourced from within
Sourced from outside
Concerning end result of
action
 Concerning movement
pattern
 Before/after completion
 During/at end of action



Swimmers will experience different types of feedback
both during and after a performance.
(a) Knowledge of results and knowledge of
performance are two types of feedback. Explain
these two types of feedback.
(2 marks)
(b) What are the three main benefits of feedback to
a swimmer?
(3 marks)
(c) What are the characteristics of ‘effective
feedback’ for a swimmer?
(4 marks)
(a) KR – outcome of action;
KP – information about movement/kinesthesis/feel of
movement/intrinsic;
(b) Correct errors/improve technique/highlight weaknesses;
Reinforcement/illustrate success/highlight strengths;
Motivation/self-confidence;
(c) Process only limited amount of information/succinct/short;
Clear information/accurate/correct/relevant/simple;
Immediate;
Individualised;
Different forms – verbal and visual;
Intrinsic;
Terminal better for beginners/concurrent for elite;
Positive for beginners/Negative for advanced;
Executive
Effector
(decides)
(does it)




No feedback.
Pre-planned actions.
Explains fast, ‘ballistic’ movements
Stored as executive programmes that
simply run and cannot be adjusted
Motor
command
Executive
Effector
Feedback
Feedback involved.
‘Memory trace’ recalls previous correct responses
and initiates movement
 ‘Perceptual trace’ as a model of correctness that is
adjusted and strengthened through practice.
 Does not account for actions too fast for feedback
 Does not explain limits of memory



Four relationships (schema) stored for
every movement.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Initial conditions
General motor programme
Knowledge of results
Sensory consequences


Recall schema provides motor programme –
1 and 2
Recognition schema evaluates responses – 3
and 4
(a) In relation to skilled performance, what do you
understand by the terms motor programme and
subroutines? Give appropriate examples from a
tennis serve.
(3 marks)
(b) Schmidt’s schema theory is based on four
sources of information which are used to modify
motor programmes. List the four sources of
information.
(4 marks)
(c) How can a coach organise practices to enable a
schema to develop? (3 marks)
(a) Motor programme – Controls movement/set of
instructions/made up of subroutines/plan of action stored
in memory (long term)/equiv;
Subroutines – Sequences of movement, which are
performed automatically/isolated aspects of a
movement/practised in parts/equiv;
Grip/footwork/backward swing/forward swing/ball
toss/contact with ball/follow through; (minimum of three
examples for 1 mark)
(b) (Knowledge of) initial conditions/set up/requirement of
skills;
(Knowledge of) response specifications/demands/what is
needed;
Sensory consequences/Kinesthesis/Knowledge of
Performance/KP;
Movement outcomes/Knowledge of Results/KR;
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed
practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;
Should have feedback;
Should be realistic to the game/activity;
Should include transferable elements;
Becoming more challenging/more difficult.
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed
practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;
Should have feedback;
Should be realistic to the game/activity;
Should include transferable elements;
Becoming more challenging/more difficult.
(c) Practice to be varied/avoid blocked or massed
practice/examples;
Should include plenty of information;
Should have feedback;
Should be realistic to the game/activity;
Should include transferable elements;
Becoming more challenging/more difficult.



A relatively permanent change in behaviour
Seen to have occurred in performance of
skill
Improvements in performance seen as a
learning curve
no
improvement
Period of rapid
improvement
little early
improvement
Learning
plateau
Performance
deteriorates

Fatigue

Loss of motivation/boredom

Technical deficiencies



If fatigued – Rest/recovery periods
To motivate - Rewards/goals
Limited skill - Change style/method of
practice or isolate and correct faulty
technique



The production of a stimulus produces an
appropriate response (associationist or S-R
theories)
Conditioning theories - link between stimulus
and response (bond) strengthened by
reinforcement
Classical and operant conditioning





Positive reinforcement is praise
Increases probability of repeat of
behaviour/success
Strengthens S-R bond
Negative reinforcement also encourages
repeat of success
But involves removal of negative/
unpleasant stimulus when desired response
occurs - coach/crowd stop barracking


Punishment is used to stop repeat of
undesired/unsuccessful behaviour/ attempt
Inhibits S-R bond strengthening
positive reinforcement – the games player makes an
accurate pass (behaviour) and the teacher shouts
‘nice pass’ (reinforced)
 negative reinforcement – the teacher who
constantly shouts from the touchline suddenly stops
shouting; the players know that their behaviour must
now be correct
 punishment - giving a red card for a foul in a game
serves to prevent that behaviour happening again


Learn unconditioned response to conditioned
stimulus e.g. Pavlov’s dogs

Rare in sport

Can be used to reduce anxiety prior to
performance – relaxation through calming
phrase and physical cue


Trial and error learning - behaviour
reinforced - success/praise motivates to
repeat success
Thorndike’s laws
1. exercise - rehearse to strengthen bond
2. effect - rewards strengthen bond
3. readiness - performer able to do task




Operant conditioning = trial and error
learning
Based on S-R relationship
Coach manipulates environment to achieve
desired response (shaping) –
target/feeder/conditions/etc
Uses reinforcement to bring about desired
response






Copying/mimicing another's behaviour/action
Requires learning to be:
Attentive
Capable of remembering (retention)
Capable of performing (production)
Willing to learn (motivation)


Insight learning - concerned with
understanding rather than linking S-R
Work out what is happening - whole practice,
rather than learning skills in isolation
Cognitive – understanding nature of task; develop
motor programme; requires demonstration from
coach; feedback is extrinsic; many errors
 Associative – practice stage; less visual more
proprioceptive; fewer but repetitive errors
 Autonomous – skill mastered; little conscious
effort; processing used for strategies rather than
skill






Positive - benefits
Negative - hindrance
Bilateral – from one side to other
Proactive – current skill helps future skill
Retroactive – current skill improves past skill

Command

Reciprocal

Discovery

Problem Solving

Teacher makes all the decisions with no input
from the learners

Clear instructions and objectives, large
groups catered for, control and discipline
maintained

Possible lack of understanding, little social
interaction, little creativity, limited individual
feedback

Used when:
 Groups are large or undisciplined
 Novice performers need to be taught
recognised techniques
 Dangerous situations
 Complex skills

Most decisions made by teacher with some
learner input

Instructions and objectives are clear, social
interaction skills are developed, some individual
feedback received, self-confidence increased

May be difficult for beginners, performers may
lack communication skills, unable to analyse
movement, difficult to monitor for teacher

Used when:
 Learners are more experienced
 Simple skills are involved
 Limited danger is present
 Time is available

Teacher guides performer to find the correct
movement by providing information, giving
specific clues or asking questions

Encourages creativity and decision making skills,
responsibility for own learning, increased
motivation and self confidence

Time consuming, difficult for those who lack
creativity, progress of large groups is difficult to
monitor

Used when:
 Creativity is required
 There is no right or wrong answer
 More experienced performers are involved

Problem set by teacher and solved by
student. There is no right or wrong answer

Encourages creativity and develops cognitive
skills
Novice performer throwing javelin
Novice performer developing a gym routine
Experienced basketball players practicing free throws in a practice session
Sixth from students rock climbing for the first time
Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the first time, in a 50
minute lesson
Year 9 students practicing the smash in badminton, for the third lesson in a
series or four
An outside coach coming in to take a kick boxing lesson at a club for the first
time
What have you based you decision on?

Nature of performer – experience, stage of
learning, age, gender, size of group

Nature of task – open or closed skill, gross or
fine, discrete serial or continuous, self or
externally paced

Experience – amount of knowledge, personality,
relationship with group

Environmental conditions – facilities, time
available, purpose of the session

Whole Learning

Part Learning

Progressive Part Method

Whole-Part-Whole Method

Performer attempts the whole movement
following instructions or demonstration

Develop an awareness of entire movement
and understand the relationship between
different subroutines immediately

Difficult to use with complex skills, difficult
for novice performers, not ideal for
dangerous skills

Ideally used when:
 Skill is discrete or ballistic
 Subroutines lack meaning
 Performer is motivated
 Performer is experienced

Performer attempts all sub routines before
attempting skill as a whole

Complex skills are broken down into
subroutines, specific aspects of technique
modified, develops confidence on completion

It hinders timing of complete skill, reduces
kinaesthetic awareness, transfer part-whole
may not be effective, time consuming

Ideally used when:
 The skill is complex
 Skill involves long sequences
 Performer has limited attention span
 Inexperienced

Subroutines linked (chaining) once each
individual part is learned

Complex skills introduced gradually, novice
performers achieve quick success,
development of understanding of
subroutines, transfer to whole is easier

Time consuming, too much focus on
particular subroutines

Ideally used when:
 Skill is complex, serial or dangerous
 Time is not a constraint
 Performer is inexperienced

Performer attempts whole skill and then
develops specific subroutines before
completing the whole skill

An overall feel for movement developed
initially, success is ongoing as subroutines are
developed

Transfer form part to whole is difficult
A novice athlete learning the triple jump
Year 9 class learning how to head a football
A premier rugby team learning a set tactical move
A golfer practicing his tee shot
An experienced fast bowler practicing his action
An inexperienced cricketer learning a bowling technique
A gymnastics floor routine
A year 11 team practicing basketball lay ups
A hockey flick
An athlete working on their sprint start
Mr Kirk learning a dance routine
Practice occurs after the presentation of
practice
 Coach to decide on type ensuring learning
occurs, motivation is maintained and fatigue
does not affect performance
 Four Types:
1. Massed
2. Distributed
3. Variable
4. Mental


Repeated practice with little or no recovery period between
blocks

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ideally used when:
Skills are discrete
Performer is motivated
Performer is experienced
High level of fitness
Replication of fatigue in games is required

Possible problems – boredom and fatigue
Repeated practice followed by recovery period before repetition
or new task
 Recovery period may involve other form of activity not just rest
(mental practice or feedback)


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ideally used when:
The skill is new and complex
The performer is a novice
Low levels of motivation
Low levels of fitness
Short attention span
Recovery period can lead to – de-motivation, loss of
concentration and lack of discipline

Coach uses a mixture of massed and variable practice

Maintains interest levels and motivation

Helps to limit the effects of fatigue when required

Cognitive rehearsal of skill without physical movement
Used before, during or after performance


Internal – sees themselves from within (kinaesthetic feel)
External – seeing themselves as if they were a spectator

Creates mental image, reduces reaction time, improve
anticipation and control arousal


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Ideally used when:
Learning time needs to be reduced
Preparing for alternative situations or experiences
Concentrate on specific aspects or the overall skill
Arousal needs to be controlled
Performer is injured
Optimised by
Quiet Location
Encouraging successful outcomes
Regular practice
Use during recovery period

Guidance is used to develop movement
patterns and reduce errors made in
performance

Guidance depends on the situation, nature of
the task and ability of performer

Types: Visual, Verbal, Manual and Mechanical

Creating a mental picture through
observation of demos, videos, pictures etc

Can also be developed through modifying the
playing area

To optimise visual guidance: accurate demo,
focus on key points, info relevant to age and
ability and clear and realistic stimuli
Advantages
Disadvantages
Good for performers in the cognitive
stage of learning
De-motivation if the performer is
unable to replicate the skill
Provides a clear idea of the movement
pattern to be performed
Can provide too much information for a
novice
Specific cues can be highlighted
Static forms of guidance soon loose
their impact

Explaining the motor skill to be performed,
understanding the requirements and feedback

General or specific depending on ability

To optimise visual guidance: clear and accurate
info, limit the amount of information required,
language and terminology relevant to age
group, most effective with visual guidance
Advantages
Disadvantages
Good for all stages of learning if
combined with other types of guidance
De-motivation if unable to replicate the
skill
Useful in the autonomous stage of
learning
Overload of information may occur
Feedback can be given immediately
either during or after the performance
Difficulty in understanding, especially
for novice performers
Focus the performers attention on
specific cues when watching a demo
Some movement may be difficult to
explain

Involves the performer being physically
placed or supported into correct position

To optimise manual guidance: avoid over use
of kinaesthetic awareness will not develop,
combine with verbal guidance and ensure
movement pattern is correct
Advantages
Disadvantages
Good for all stages of learning especially
novice
Performer becomes over reliant on help
and support
Reduce fear and builds confidence
Lack of intrinsic feedback
Helps to reduce risks in some potentially
dangerous situations
Difficult to learn for own mistakes and
correct them independently
Development of correct kinaesthetic
awareness
Difficult in large groups

Similar to manual but uses some form of
device or support

Trampolining and swimming use them