CHAPTER 4
Party Organizations
Party organization in the United States exists in a
great variety of forms, and the type of organization
depends upon a variety of factors:
the level of government involved (e.g. local, state,
or
national)


the type of governmental regulations under which it
must operate

the extent of interparty competition that exists

the clientele or bases of party support

regional and local traditions

the nature of the electorate
Party Organizations

Generally American political parties are cadre
parties rather than mass membership parties

Cadre parties are characterized by a small number
of leaders and activists who maintain the
organization, recruit candidates, seek to influence
nominations, and campaign for the party’s nominees

The American cadre type party is organized to carry
out its primary task—the winning of elections

Therefore, party organization is built around
geographic election districts, starting with the basic
unit of election administration, the precinct

Party organization can be described as a system of
layers of organization (Figure 4.1.)
Figure 4.1. Layers of Party Organization in the
United States
Congressional
Campaign
Committee
National Committee
and
Chair/Headquarters Staff
Senatorial
Campaign
Committee
State Senate
Campaign
Committee
State Committee
and
Chair/Headquarters Staff
State House of
Representatives
Campaign
Committee
Congressional District
and
State Legislative District Committees
County Committees
(Townships in Northeast; Parishes in
Louisiana; Districts in Alaska)
Rural Areas
Town, Village
Rural Township
Committees
Urban Areas
City Committee
Ward Committee
Precinct Leaders
Party Organizations

This layered organizational structure is called
stratarchy, “an organization with layers, or strata, of
control rather than centralized leadership from the
top down.”

A special component of stratarchy is reciprocal
deference, which means that there is a tolerance of
autonomy between the layers of organization
The loosely structured system of formal party
organization is supplemented by individual
candidate organizations, party-allied groups, and
campaign consultants
 Together they form a network

The National Parties
The National Committees

Represent the party organizations of the fifty states
plus ex officio representation for important elected
officials and organized interests

The national committee can be an effective catalyst
for stimulating the party organization, even though
its formal powers are limited

The RNC and the DNC differ in their degrees of
institutionalization and professionalization, which is
reflected by differences in party receipts (Figure
4.2.)
Figure 4.2. National Party Receipts, 1976-2004
(Combined Receipts of National, Congressional, and
Senatorial Committees in Millions)
Party Receipts (in Millions)
700
657.1
600
576.2
500
400
347.8
321.2
300
245.9
191.4
192.1
200
207
120.4
164.9
100
43.1
15.1
0
1976
20
1980
65.9
1984
81.1
1988
Democratic Committees
Source: Federal Election Commission
104.1
1992
1996
Republican Committees
2000
2004
The National Parties
The National Chairs

Because the national committees are unwieldy in
size and only meet twice a year, the national chair
plays a key role in determining how the committee
will operate

The national chairs serve on a fulltime basis, and
their job is to create a headquarters capable of
providing the services needed to win elections
Frequently, a major responsibility of the national
chair is maintaining or restoring a sense of party
unity, through mediation among various factions
 Generally the chair of the party that controls the
White House has less flexibility and independence
than the chair of the opposition party

The National Parties
The actual work of the national committees includes:
 Fund-raising of “hard money”—funds raised in
accordance with Federal Election Campaign Act
(FECA) restrictions

Assistance to state and local party organizations

Campaign activities, such as supporting the
presidential nominees’ campaigns

Communications, such as campaign advertising

Planning, and managing the national conventions

Research to provide issue background to candidates
and party leaders
The National Parties
Party Integration in Election Campaigns

Large-scale transfers of party funds from the
national committees to state parties were previously
encouraged by provisions of the FECA

After the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of
2002, party spending went through a number of
changes which profoundly affected party
organizations:
-
national parties raised more hard money
transfers to state parties declined
state parties did not advertise
parties continued to make strategic transfers
Figure 4.3. State Expenditures, 2000 and 2004
300
Millions Spent
250
200
150
100
50
0
Media
Grassroots
Mobilization
2000
Administration
Unidentified
2004
Source: Raymond J LaRaja, “State and Local Parties,” in Michael J. Malbin, ed., Election after Reform: Money, Politics, and the
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).
Figure 4.4. National-to-State Party Transfers,
2003-2004
Transfers to States by DNC and RNC
More than $2,000,000 (11)
$1,000,000 to $2,000,000 (11)
$200,000 to $1,000,000 (14)
$0 to $200,000 (14)
Source: Federal Election Commission
The National Parties
The Hill Committees

Congressional and senatorial campaign committees
(“Hill Committees”) are increasingly important
elements of the national party

The members of these committees are members of
the House and Senate

The Hill committees focus on holding their parties’
marginal seats by assisting targeted candidates

Through coordinated expenditures, the hill
committees are also permitted by the FECA to make
expenditures in support of their parties’ candidates
Figure 4.5. Allocations of National Party Funds in U.S.
House and Senate Elections, 2002: Concentrating on
Competitive Races Where There Is a Chance to Win
100%
100%
Percent Allocated
90%
90%
80%
80%
Open Seat Candidates With Little
Chance
Open Seat Candidate with
70%
70%
Challengers
With Little Chance
Little Chance
60%
60%
SafeChallengers
Incumbents
50%
50%
Safe
Incumbents
Strong
Open
Seat Candidates
40%
40%
Strong
Open
Strong
Challengers
30%
30%
with Little Chance
Seat Candidates
Strong Challengers
Vulnerable Incumbents
20%
20%
Vulnerable Incumbents
10%
10%
0%
0%
House
House
Senate
Senate
House
House
Senate
Senate
Democrats
Republicans
Democrats
Republicans
Democrats
Republicans
Democrats
Republicans
Percent Allocated
Source: Adapted from Federal Election Commission data analyzed by Paul S. Herrnson, Congressional
Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2004), p. 101.
The National Parties
Party-Allied Groups

In addition to the formal, legally constituted party
organizations such as the national or the hill
committees, the organizational resource base of the
parties also includes other organizations

Traditionally, the Democratic Party has had a strong
connection to labor unions, whereas the Republican
Party had a strong connection to corporations

In recent elections, party-allied groups, often with
interest in special issues, have been extensively
involved in campaigns

However, these groups have their own agenda, and
maintain an autonomous organizational structure
The National Parties
“Think Tanks” and Consultants

Yet another addition to the formal, legally
constituted party organizations is the Washington
public-policy research organizations called “think
tanks”

These are an important source used for the
formulation and promotion of policy proposals

Political consultants have also become a prominent
element in the structure of the party organizations

To win elections, party organizations need the
technical/professional skills and the personalized
State Parties

There is a tendency in the United States for
extensive statutory regulation of parties by the
states, with great variation among states

The legal position of state parties has much in
common with that of public utilities, as they perform
essential public functions under the protection of the
law

The legal position of the parties is in the process of
modification as a result of a series of recent
Supreme Court decisions
State Parties
The State Committees

In each of the states there is a Republican and
Democratic state committee, the members of which
may represent counties, congressional districts,
legislative districts or party auxiliary groups

Because the size of state committees is often
unwieldy and their meetings infrequent, many state
parties rely heavily upon an executive committee

The responsibilities of the state committees include
overseeing the work of the state chair and the
headquarters staff, calling of state conventions,
adopting party policies, supervising platform
drafting, fundraising, and assisting candidates
State Parties
The Role of the Governor

In a nationwide study, most state party chairs
considered the governor’s role in party affairs to be
advisory rather than controlling

In some states, however, the governor plays a
substantial role in the selection of their party’s state
chair

Most commonly the governor and state chair consult
on appointments, candidate recruitments, fundraising, and other major party activities
State Parties
The Service-Oriented State Organization of the 2000s

To survive and perform a meaningful role in current
state politics, the parties had to adapt to an
environment characterized by:
-

an absence of large-scale patronage
candidate-centered campaigns
heightened interparty competition for statewide offices
strengthened national party organizations
In adapting to these conditions, the state party
organizations have become service agencies to their
candidates and local affiliates
State Parties

Among the indicators of the evolution of most state
parties into service organizations are:
-

the establishment of permanent headquarters
the increased use of professional staffing
significant expansion of state party budgets
the expansion of party programs for support of candidates
and party building
Studies of state party organization have shown that
on the whole Republicans tend to have stronger,
more professionalized, and better-financed state
organizations than the Democrats
State Parties
State Legislative Campaign Committees

These increasingly important organizations are
fashioned after congressional and senatorial
campaign committees at the national level

They are composed of incumbent legislators who
raise funds and hire staff to assist their parties’
legislative candidates

The most active legislative campaign committees
are found in states with high levels of interparty
competition, high campaign costs, and weak state
central committees
County and Local Parties
The Party Machine

The most familiar type of local party organization is
the big city machine (e.g. the Cook County
Democratic Organization during the era of Mayor
Richard J. Daley)

Urban machines were most common in the late
1800s into the mid-1900s

This organization was run as a hierarchy and
sustained by patronage (votes for jobs)

At their core, urban machines were inherently
undemocratic, but they are often remembered
fondly because of their attention to poor citizens
County and Local Parties
Local Parties Today

With few exceptions, urban machines have largely
faded from the political landscape

Instead, today’s local parties are based upon
volunteers, have no permanent headquarters or
paid staff, and activity is not a year-round
phenomenon

The lack of a bureaucratic structure, however, does
not necessarily imply a low level of party activity

As the fund-raising capacity of county parties has
increased, the national party committees have
shown increased interest in assisting them
Does Party Organization Make a Difference?

There is evidence that the party organization can
have a critical impact on election outcomes

A strong party organization can provide the
infrastructure for candidates and activists to:
1. continue the battle in the face of short-term defeats and
enduring minority status
2. take advantage of favorable circumstances when they
arise (e.g. the retirement of a popular opposition party
incumbent, or low presidential approval ratings)

In spite of commentaries in the media about the
decline of parties, party canvassing of voters
reaches approximately one-quarter of the electorate
in election years and increases turnout
The Party Activists
Party organizations require officers, workers, and
volunteers—political activists willing to give their time,
talents, and treasure for the success of the party and
its candidates
Incentives to Participate

Direct material rewards, such as government jobs or
“preferments” (preferential treatments)

The prestige of winning and holding elected office

Social benefits, such as friendships or solidarity

Concern for issues and ideology
The Party Activists
The Distinctiveness of Activists

Political activists are set apart from the average
citizen by their high levels of political participation

Other distinctive characteristics:
- activists tend to come from families that are active and
interested in politics
- party activists are generally of relatively high
socioeconomic status
- activists are much more likely to view the world from an
ideological perspective and to adopt a liberal or
conservative position on issues than ordinary voters
(Table 4.4.)
Table 4.4. The Ideology of National Convention
Delegates, Party Voters, and All Voters: A
Comparison, 2004 (in percent)
Democratic
Delegates
Democratic
Voters
All Voters
Republican
Voters
Republican
Delegates
Very liberal
22
12
7
2
1
Somewhat liberal
19
21
13
4
1
Moderate
52
52
34
30
33
Somewhat conservative
3
15
22
31
27
Very conservative
*
4
13
25
33
Political Views
* Less than 1 percent
Source: New York Times/CBS Poll
The Party Activists
Party Organizations as Networks of Issue-Oriented
Activists

Issues and ideological concerns have become so
important as a motivation for participation that party
organizations are increasingly becoming “issuebased networks”

This trend has its source in a series of forces:
- the emergence of a range of culture/social issues such as
abortion, women’s and gay rights, and environmentalism
- broad socioeconomic trends, such as rising levels of
educational attainment
- the decline in the availability of patronage as an incentive
The Party Activists

Evidence shows that party organizations are
becoming networks of issue activists, e.g. in the
ideological positions of convention delegates

Issue-based groups are also becoming ensconced
in the party organizational structure

The increasing involvement and influence of issueoriented activists within the parties is causing
conflicts between officeholders and party
organizations

Activists are an important constituency of
candidates, however, needed as campaign workers
and for financial contributions