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PowerPoint slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, PhD
Touro College
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Chapter 10: Schools
Outline
•
APPROACHES TO EDUCATING STUDENTS
– Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning
– Accountability
•
TRANSITIONS IN SCHOOLING
– Transition to Middle or Junior High School
– Improving Middle Schools
– The American High School
– High School Dropouts
– Transition from High School to College
– Transition from College to Work
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Chapter 10: Schools
Outline
• THE SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF SCHOOLS
–
–
–
–
Changing Social Developmental Contexts
School Climate
Person-Environment Fit
Teachers, Parents, Peers, and Extracurricular
Activities
– Culture
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Chapter 10: Schools
Outline
• ADOLESCENTS WHO ARE EXCEPTIONAL
–
–
–
–
Who are Adolescents with Disabilities?
Learning Disabilities
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Educational Issues Involving Adolescents
with Disabilities
– Adolescents Who Are Gifted
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Schools
In youth, we learn.
An important context for that learning is school.
Schools not only foster adolescents’ academic
learning, they also provide a social arena
where peers, friends, and crowds can have a
powerful influence on their development.
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Approaches to Educating Students
• Contemporary Approaches to Student
Learning
– There are two main contemporary approaches
to student learning:
• Constructivist
• Direct Instruction
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Approaches to Educating Students
• The Constructivist Approach
– It is a learner-centered approach.
– Emphasizes the importance of individuals
actively constructing their knowledge and
understanding with guidance from the teacher.
– Children are encouraged to explore their
world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think
critically with careful monitoring and meaning
guidance from the teacher (Eby, Herrell, &
Jordan, 2009).
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Approaches to Educating Students
•
The Constructivist Approach (Continued)
– Constructionists believe that for too long in
American education children have been required to
– Sit still.
– Be passive learners.
– Rotely memorize irrelevant as well as
relevant information (Armstrong, Henson, &
Savage, 2009).
– Constructivism may include an emphasis on
collaboration: children working with each other in
their efforts to know and understand (McNeil, 2009).
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Approaches to Educating Students
•
The Constructivist Approach (Continued)
– Constructivist instructional philosophy would not
have children memorize information rotely but
would give them opportunities to meaningfully
construct the knowledge and to understand the
material while guiding their learning (Kellough &
Carjuzaa, 2009).
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Approaches to Educating Students
• The Direct Instruction Approach
– Is a structured, teacher-centered approach that
is characterized by:
–
–
–
–
Teacher direction and control.
High teacher expectations for student’s progress.
Maximum time spent by students on academic tasks.
Efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a
minimum.
– An important goal in the direct instruction
approach is maximizing student learning time.
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Approaches to Educating Students
• Accountability
– State-mandated tests have taken on a more
powerful role (Gronlund & Waugh, 2009;
Oosterhof, 2009).
– Most states have or are in the process of
identifying objectives that every student in the
state is expected to achieve.
– The most visible aspect of state-mandated
testing involves the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act, the federal legislation that was
signed into law in 2002.
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Approaches to Educating Students
• Accountability (Continued)
– NCLB is the U.S. government’s effort to hold
schools and school districts accountable for
the success or failure of their students (Yell &
Drasgrow, 2009).
– The legislation shifts the responsibility to the
states, with states being required to create
their own standards for students’ achievement
in mathematics, English/language arts, and
science.
– In 2006, states were required to give all
students annual tests in grade 3 through 8.
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Approaches to Educating Students
• Accountability (Continued)
– Criticisms of NCLB (Stiggins, 2008):
– Using a single score from a single test as the
sole indicator of students’ progress and
competence represents a very narrow aspect of
students’ skills (Lewis, 2007).
– The tests schools are using to assess
achievement and progress, required by NCLB, do
not measure such important skills as:
• Creativity
• Motivation
• Persistence
• Flexible thinking
• Social skills
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Approaches to Educating Students
• Accountability (Continued)
– Criticisms of NCLB (Stiggins, 2008):
– Teachers are spending far too much class time
“teaching to the test” by drilling students and
having them memorize isolated facts at the
expense of more student-centered constructivist
teaching that focuses on higher-level thinking
skills, which students need for success in life.
– At issue is whether the tests and procedures
mandated by NCLB are the best ones for
achieving these high standards (Yell & Drasgow,
2009).
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Transition to Middle or Junior High School
– The transition to middle or junior high school can be difficult
and stressful for many students (Anderman & Mueller; 2009;
Elmore, 2009).
– The transition takes place at a time when many changes—in
the individual, in the family, and in school—are occurring
simultaneously. These changes include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Puberty
Formal operational thought
Responsibility and independence
Impersonal school structure
Heterogeneous set of peers
Focus on assessment
Top-dog phenomenon
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Improving Middle Schools
– In 1989 the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development
recommended:
• Develop smaller “communities” to lessen the impersonal
nature of large middle schools.
• Lower student-to-counselor ratios from several hundred-to1
to 10-to1.
• Involve parents and community leaders in schools.
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Improving Middle Schools (Continued)
– In 1989 the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development
recommended:
• Develop better curricula that produce students who are literate,
understand the sciences, and have a sense of health, ethics, and
citizenship.
• Have teachers team-teach in more flexibly designed curriculum
blocks that integrate several disciplines, instead of presenting
students with disconnected, rigidly separated 50-minute
segments.
• Boost students’ health and fitness with more in-school
programs and help students who need public health care to
get it.
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Transitions in Schooling
•
The American High School
– Many high school graduates are poorly prepared for college.
– Many are poorly prepared for the demands of the modern,
high-performance workplace.
– The National Research Council (2004) made a number of
recommendations for improving U.S. high schools:
• Get students more engaged in learning.
• Focus on the psychological factors involved in motivation.
• Promote a sense of belonging “by personalizing instruction,
showing an interest in students’ lives, and creating a supportive,
caring social environment” (p. 3).
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Transitions in Schooling
• High School Dropouts
– Viewed as a serious educational and societal
problem for many decades.
– Adolescents approach adult life with educational
deficiencies that severely curtail their economic
and social well-being (Elmore, 2009).
– In the last half of the 20th century and the first
several years of the 21st century, U.S. high school
dropout rates declined (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2008a).
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Transitions in Schooling
Trends in High School Dropout Rates
Fig. 10.1
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Transitions in Schooling
• The Causes of Dropping Out
–
–
–
–
–
School-related problems
Economic reasons
Socioeconomic status
Friends drop out
Personal reasons
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Reducing the Dropout Rate
• The most effective programs provided early reading
programs, tutoring, counseling, and mentoring (Lehr & others,
2003).
• Early detection of children’s school-related difficulties.
• Get children engaged with school in positive ways.
• Create caring environments and relationships, use block
scheduling, and offer community-service opportunities.
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Transition from High School to College
• Replays the top-dog phenomenon.
• Involves a move to a larger more impersonal
school structure.
• Interaction with peers from diverse geographical
and sometimes more diverse ethnic backgrounds.
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Transition from High School to College
• Increased focus on achievement and performance
and their assessment.
• Students are more likely to:
•
•
•
•
•
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Feel grown up.
Have more subjects from which to select.
Have more time to spend with peers.
Have more opportunities to explore different lifestyles.
Enjoy greater independence from parental monitoring.
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Transitions in Schooling
•
Transition from College to Work
• Having a college degree is a strong asset.
• College graduates earn considerably more money in their
lifetimes than those who do not go to college.
• Income differences between college graduates and high
school graduates continue to grow (Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2008-2009).
• U.S. colleges train many students to develop general skills
rather than vocationally specific skills.
• The transition from college to work is often a difficult one
(Mortimer & Larson, 2002).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Changing Social Developmental Contexts
• The social context differs at the preschool,
elementary, and secondary level.
• Preschool
• A protected environment.
• The boundary is the classroom.
• The Elementary School
• The classroom is still the major context.
• More likely to be experienced as a social unit.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
•
Changing Social Developmental Contexts (Continued)
• The Middle or Junior High School
• The school environment increases in scope and
complexity.
• The social field is the school as a whole rather than the
classroom.
• Adolescents socially interact with many different teachers
and peers from a range of social and ethnic backgrounds.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
•
Changing Social Developmental Contexts (Continued)
• The Middle or Junior High School (Continued)
• A greater mix of male and female teachers.
• Social behavior is heavily weighted toward
peers, extracurricular activities, clubs, and the
community.
• The student in secondary schools is usually
aware of the school as a social system and may
be motivated to conform and adapt or to
challenge it (Minuchin & Shapiro, 1983).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Classroom Climate and Management
• Two effective general strategies for
creating positive classroom environments
are:
– Using an authoritative strategy.
– Effectively managing the group’s activities.
• Strategies of Classroom Management
• Authoritative
• Authoritarian
• Permissive
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Person-Environment Fit
• Some negative psychological changes
might result from a mismatch between the
needs of developing adolescents and the
opportunities afforded them by the schools
they attend.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
•
•
Teachers, Parents, Peers, and Extracurricular Activities
• Adolescents’ development is influenced by teachers.
Teachers
• The following teacher traits are associated with positive student
outcomes more than are other traits:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Enthusiasm
Ability to plan
Poise
Adaptability
Warmth
Flexibility
Awareness of individual differences
• Positive teacher expectations were linked with higher student
achievement (Jussim & Eccles, 1993).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Parents and Schools
• Parents play important roles in the
adolescent’s success in schools.
• Through effective family management practices.
• Being involved in adolescents’ schooling.
• Family Management
• Family management practices are
positively related to grades and selfresponsibility, and negatively to schoolrelated problems (Taylor, 1996).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Parental Involvement
• Is less in secondary school (Eccles & Harold, 1993).
• Teachers listed parental involvement as the
number one priority in improving education (Chira,
1993).
• Students were more likely to get As and less likely
to repeat a grade or be expelled if both parents
were highly involved in their schooling (National
Center for Education Statistics, 1997).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Parental Involvement (Continued)
• Joyce Epstein (2001, 2005, 2007a,b, 2009) offers the
following recommendations for increasing parental
involvement in adolescents’ schooling:
• Families have a basic obligation to provide for the safety and
health of their adolescents.
• School have a basic obligation to communicate with families
about school programs and the individual progress of their
adolescents.
• Parents’ involvement at school needs to be increased.
• Parental involvement in the adolescent’s learning activities at
home needs to be encouraged.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Peers (peer relations in school contexts)
– Structure of middle school
• Encourages students to interact with larger numbers of
peers on a daily basis (Wentzel, 2003).
• The relative uncertainty and ambiguity of multiple
classroom environments and more complex class
schedules may result in students turning to each other for
information, social support, and strategies for coping.
– Peer statuses
• Have been studied in relation to school success.
• Being popular or accepted by peers is usually associated
with academic success.
• Being rejected by peers is related to more negative
outcomes (Wentzel, 2003).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Peers (peer relations in school contexts)
– Bullying
• Significant numbers of students are victimized by bullies
(Hinuja & Patchin, 2009; Juvonen & Galvan, 2008; Pepler &
others, 2008).
• In a national survey of more than 15,000 6th through 10thgrade students, nearly 1 of every 3 students said that they
had experienced occasional or frequent involvement as a
victim or perpetrator in bullying (Nansel & others, 2001).
– Friendship
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The Social Contexts of Schools
•
Bullying Behaviors
Among U.S. Youth
Fig. 10.2
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Peers (peer relations in school contexts)
– Bullying (Continued)
• Who is likely to be bullied?
– Boys
– Younger middle school students
– Anxious and socially withdrawn children
• Bullies and their victims in adolescence were more likely
to experience depression and engage in suicide ideation
and attempt suicide than their counterparts who were not
involved in bullying (Brunstein Klomek & others, 2007).
• Cyberbullying
– When a child or adolescent is tormented, threatened,
harassed, or humiliated by another child or adolescent on
the Internet (Aricak & others, 2008).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Bullying Prevention/Intervention
• An increasing number of prevention/intervention
programs have been developed to reduce bullying
(Breakstone, Dreiblat, & Dreiblat, 2009):
• Olweus Bullying Prevention
• Bully-Proofing Your School
• Steps to Respect
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Bullying Prevention/Intervention
• To reduce bullying, schools can adopt these
strategies (Cohn & Canter, 2003; Hyman & others,
2006; Limber, 2004):
• Get older peers to serve as monitors for bullying and
intervene when they see it taking place.
• Develop school-wide rules and sanctions against bullying
and post them throughout the school.
• Form friendship groups for adolescents who are regularly
bullied by peers.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Bullying Prevention/Intervention (Continued)
– Identify bullies and victims early and use social
skills training to improve their behavior.
– Become involved in school programs to counteract
bullying.
– Reinforce adolescents’ positive behaviors and
model interactions that do not include bullying or
aggression.
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Friendship
• Having friends is related to higher grades
and test scores in adolescents (Berndt &
Keefe, 1996).
• One longitudinal study found that having at
least one friend was related to academic
success over a two-year period (Wentzel &
Caldwell, 1997).
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43
The Social Contexts of Schools
• Extracurricular Activities
• Adult-sanctioned.
• Occur after-school hours.
• Wide array of activities beyond academic courses:
•
•
•
•
•
Sports
Honor societies
Band
Drama club
Academic clubs (math and language)
• Participation is linked to higher grades, school
engagement, less likelihood of dropping out.
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44
The Social Contexts of Schools
• Extracurricular Activities (Continued)
• Participation is linked to:
•
•
•
•
•
Higher grades.
School engagement.
Less likelihood of dropping out of school.
Higher self-esteem.
Lower rates of depression, delinquency and substance
abuse (Fredricks, 2008; Mahoney & other, 2009; Parente &
Mahoney, 2009; Peck & others, 2008).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
• Extracurricular Activities (Continued)
• The quality of the extracurricular activities matters
(Fredricks, 2008; Mahoney & other, 2009; Parente & Mahoney, 2009).
• High-quality extracurricular activities that are likely
to promote positive adolescent development:
•
•
•
•
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Competent and supportive adult mentors.
Opportunities for increasing school connectedness.
Challenging and meaningful activities.
Opportunities for improving skills (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006).
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46
The Social Contexts of Schools
•
•
Culture
• Adults often restrict access to peers, especially for girls.
Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity
– Adolescents from low-income, ethnic minority backgrounds
have more difficulties in school than do their middlesocioeconomic-status non-Latino white counterparts.
– Critics argue that schools have not done a good job of
educating low-income, ethnic minority adolescents to
overcome the barriers to their achievement (Golnick & Chinn,
2009; Taylor & Whittaker, 2009).
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47
The Social Contexts of Schools
•
The Education of Students from Low-Income
Backgrounds
• Many adolescents in poverty face problems that present
barriers to their learning (Hutson, 2008).
• Schools in low-income areas are more likely to have more
students with:
•
•
•
•
•
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Low achievement test scores.
Low graduation rates.
Small percentages of students going to college.
Teachers with less experience.
Teachers that are more likely to encourage rote learning (Spring,
2008).
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48
The Social Contexts of Schools
•
Ethnicity in Schools
• More than one-third of all African American and almost onethird of all Latino students attend schools in the 47 largest
city school districts in the United States.
• Many of these inner-city schools are still segregated, are
grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate
opportunities for children to learn effectively.
• The effects of SES and the effects of ethnicity are often
intertwined (Coltrane & others, 2008; Liu & others, 2008).
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The Social Contexts of Schools
•
Ethnicity in Schools (Continued)
• Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically
diverse students:
• Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom.
• Encourage students to have positive personal contact with
diverse other students.
• Encourage students to engage in perspective taking.
• Help students think critically and be emotionally intelligent
about cultural issues.
• Reduce bias.
• View the school and community as a team.
• Be a competent cultural mediator.
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50
The Social Contexts of Schools
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons
• Many countries recognize that quality,
universal education of children and youth
is critical for the success of any country.
• Countries vary considerably in their ability
to attain this mission. (Feinstein & Peck, 2008).
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51
The Social Contexts of Schools
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons
(Continued)
– Secondary Schools
•
•
•
•
•
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School begins at age 6 or 7.
Stay in school until 14- to 17-years old.
Divided into two or more levels.
Entrance exams in Japan only.
Sports important in United States and Australia.
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52
The Social Contexts of Schools
• Cross-Cultural Comparisons
(Continued)
– Colleges
• What is college attendance like around the world?
– Canada has the largest percentage of 18- to 21-year-olds
enrolled in college (41 percent)
– Belgium (40 percent)
– France (36 percent)
– United States (35 percent)
– Ireland (31 percent)
– New Zealand (25 percent)
(U.S. Department of Education, 1996).
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53
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
U.S. Children with a Disability Who Receive
Special Education
Fig. 10.3
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54
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Learning Disabilities
• Involves understanding or using spoken or written
language; the difficulty can appear in listening,
thinking, reading, writing, or spelling.
• May also involve difficulty in doing mathematics.
• The learning problem is not primarily the result of
visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; mental
retardation; emotional disorders; or environmental,
cultural, or economic disadvantage.
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55
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Learning Disabilities (Continued)
• From the mid-1970s through the mid-1990s
• There was a dramatic increase in the percentage of U.S.
students receiving special education services for a learning
disability (from 1.8 percent in 1976 to 1977 to 5.8 percent in
1995 to 1996) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008b).
• Some experts say that the dramatic increase reflected poor
diagnostic practices and over-identification.
• Other experts say the increase in the number of children
being labeled with a “learning disability” is justified (Bender,
2008; Hallahan, Kaufmann, & Pullen, 2009).
• About three times as many boys as girls are classified.
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56
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Learning Disabilities (Continued)
• Diagnosing a learning disability is often a difficult
task (Bender, 2008; Fritschmann & Solari, 2008).
• The most common problem that characterizes
students with a learning disability involves reading
(Shaywitz, Morris, & Shaywitz, 2008).
– Dyslexia is a category that is reserved for individuals who
have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell.
– Children and adolescents with learning disabilities
often have difficulties in handwriting, spelling, or
composition.
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57
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
Brain Scans and Learning Disabilities
Fig. 10.4
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58
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Children and adolescents show one or more of the
following characteristics over a period of time:
• Inattention
• Hyperactivity
• Impulsivity
• Children and adolescents who are inattentive have
difficulty focusing on any one thing and might
become bored with a task after only a few minutes.
• Children and adolescents who are hyperactive show
high levels of physical activity, seeming to almost
always be in motion.
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59
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• The number of children and adolescents with ADHD
has increased substantially, by some estimates
doubling in the 1990s.
• The disorder occurs as much as four to nine times
more in boys than in girls.
• There is controversy about the increased
diagnosis of ADHD (Gargiulo, 2009).
• ADHD is not supposed to be diagnosed by school
teams because it is a psychiatric disorder with
specific criteria (Bender, 2008).
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60
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Definitive causes of ADHD have not been found.
• A number of causes have been proposed:
– Some children and adolescents inherit a tendency to
develop ADHD from their parents (Goos, Ezzatian, Schachar,
2007).
– Some children and adolescents develop ADHD because of
damage to their brain during prenatal or postnatal
development (Banerjee, Middleton, & Faraone, 2007).
– Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
and low birth weight (Neuman & others, 2007).
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Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
Regions of the Brain in Which Children with ADHD Had a Delayed
Peak in the Thickness of the Cerebral Cortex
Fig. 10.5
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62
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• The increased academic and social demands as well
as stricter standards for behavioral control, often
illuminate the problems of the child with ADHD.
• Elementary school teachers report that the child with
ADHD has difficulty:
•
•
•
•
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Working independently.
Completing seatwork.
Organizing work.
Restlessness and distractibility also are often noted.
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63
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Treatment of ADHD
• Stimulant medication is effective
• (Ritalin, or Adderall)
• Researchers have often found that a combination of
medication and behavior management improves the
behavior of children with ADHD.
• Critics argue that many physicians are too quick to
prescribe stimulants for children with milder forms of ADHD
(Marcovitch, 2004).
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64
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
•
Educational Issues
• Until the 1970s most public schools either refused enrollment to
children or adolescents with disabilities or inadequately served
them.
• In 1975, Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act, required that all students with disabilities be given
a Free, Appropriate Public Education (FAPE).
• In 1990, Public Law 94-142 was recast as the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
• IDEA was amended in 1997 and then reauthorized in 2004 and
renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (Turnbull, Huerta, & Stowe, 2009).
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65
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Educational Issues (Continued)
• IDEA spells out broad mandates for services to all
children with disabilities (Carter, Prater, & Dynces,
2009; Smith & others, 2008):
•
•
•
•
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Evaluation and eligibility determination.
Appropriate education.
An individualized education plan (IEP).
Education in the least restrictive environment
(LRE).
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66
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
• A written statement that spells out a program that is
specifically tailored for children and adolescents with
a disability (Gargiulo, 2009).
• The IEP should be:
1. Related to the student’s learning capacity.
2. Specifically constructed to meet the student’s individual
needs and not merely a copy of what is offered to other
students.
3. Designed to provide educational benefits.
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67
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
• A setting that is similar as possible to the one in
which children and adolescents who do not have a
disability are educated.
• This provision of the IDEA has given a legal basis to
efforts to educate students with a disability in the
regular classroom (Smith & others, 2008).
• The term inclusion describes educating a child or
adolescent with special education needs full-time in
the regular classroom (Gargiulo, 2009).
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68
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
Percentage of U.S. Students with Disabilities 6 to 21 Years of Age
Receiving Special Services in the General Classroom
Fig. 10.6
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69
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Adolescents Who Are Gifted
• Have above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130
or higher) and/or superior talent in some
domain, such as art, music, or mathematics.
• Programs for gifted adolescents in schools
typically base admission to the programs on
intelligence and academic aptitude. (Pfeiffer &
Blei, 2008; VanTassell-Baska & Stambaugh, 2008).
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70
Adolescents Who Are Exceptional
• Adolescents Who Are Gifted
• Ellen Winner (1996), an expert on giftedness,
describes three characteristics of
adolescents who are gifted:
• Precocity.
• Marching to their own drummer.
• A passion to master.
• Often adolescents who are gifted are socially
isolated and under-challenged in the
classroom.
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71
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091
703–620–3660
www.cec.sped.org
The CEC maintains an information center on the
education of children and adolescents who are
exceptional and publishes materials on a wide variety
of topics.
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72
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology
(2nd ed.) (Vols 1 and 2) edited by Neal Salkind.
(2008). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
A number of leading experts provide in-depth
coverage of many educational psychology
topics, ranging from learning and cognition to
the social and cultural aspects of schools.
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73
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
National Dropout Prevention Center
Clemson University
205 Martin Street
Clemson, SC 29634
803–656–2599
www.dropoutprevention.org
The center operates as a clearinghouse for
information about dropout prevention and at-risk
youth and publishes the National Dropout Prevention
Newsletter.
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74
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
Turning Points 2000: Educating Adolescents in the
21st Century by Anthony Jackson and Gayle Davis.
(2000). New York: Teachers College Press.
This follow-up to earlier Turning Points recommendations
includes a number of strategies for meeting the
educational needs of adolescents.
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75
E-LEARNING TOOLS
To help you master the material in this
chapter, visit the Online Learning Center
for Adolescence, 13th edition at:
http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka13e
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