Chapter Two
Studying Human Sexuality
Sex, Advice Columnists,
and Pop Psychology

The sex information/advice genre seeks to:
– Inform—transmit information that is factual and
accurate
– Entertain—attract audiences through hosts’
personalities as well as high-interest or bizarre
material



Primary purpose is to sell magazines or
increase ratings of TV shows.
Often includes moral judgments and may be
superficial in disseminating information
Use social science and psychiatry to give
authority, even though the commentator is
not an authority on the subject matter.
Use and Abuse of
Statistics

Popular media may summarize social
science research in an oversimplified or
distorted manner
– Sensationalize findings
– Over generalize results of research
– Report statistics that agree with widely-held
preconceptions

Popular media may not emphasize the
importance of replication
Thinking Critically about
Sex

Basic scientific principles require a
commitment to objectivity
– observation of reality while excluding
researchers’ feelings or beliefs

Subjectivity is to be avoided
– Difficult to achieve especially in the area of
sexuality
– Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and
promote egocentric and ethnocentric thinking
Value Judgments:
Limitations

Example: “College students should be in a committed
relationship before they have sex”.
– Does not tell us what motivates people
– Does not tell us how frequently people behave in
a given way
– Does not tell us how people feel
– Only tell us how we feel, and are subjective
statement(s).

Objective statements describe actual
behavior.
Value Judgments vs.
Objectivity




Value judgments only reveal the
thoughts or feelings of one person
Objectivity describes reality
Objective positions can be tested
Cultural relativity requires that we
examine appropriateness within the
cultural norms where it exists
Value Judgments vs.
Objectivity




Value judgments imply how a person
ought to behave
Objective statements describe how
people actually behave
Value judgments cannot be empirically
evaluated
Objective statements can be
empirically evaluated
Opinions, Biases, and
Stereotypes Interfere with the
Pursuit of Knowledge



Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or
conclusions according to an individual’s
personal thoughts. Opinions reflect personal
values or biases.
Biases are personal leanings or inclinations.
Biases allow us to select information that
supports our own personal views and
ignoring the information that does not.
Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized
beliefs about an individual, a group, or an
idea, etc.
Opinions, Biases, and
Stereotypes Interfere with the
Pursuit of Knowledge

Stereotype examples:
– Old people cannot enjoy sex like young
people.
– Gay men are good interior decorators.
– Lesbian women hate men
– Men love women for sex, women have
sex with men for love.
Stereotypes



Stereotypes structure knowledge by managing
how we process knowledge – what we see, what
we notice, what we remember.
A Stereotype is a type of schema. A schema is a
way of organizing information which often
underlies stereotypes
Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify
discrimination or social groups



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Women
Poor people
African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans
Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people
Stereotypes

Again, stereotypes structure our knowledge
by shaping:
–
–
–
–


What we see
What we notice
What we remember
How we explain things
Ashleigh Brilliant - “ Seeing is believing. I wouldn’t
have seen it if I hadn’t believed it.”
We see what we expect to see and ignore
what we do not expect or want to see.
Common Fallacies:
Egocentrism and
Ethnocentrism

Fallacy: an error in reasoning that
undermines our understanding of a subject
– Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own
personal experience and values are generally
held by others
– Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own
ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and
customs are innately superior to others’
Attitudes and Behavior


Attitude: a predisposition a person has to
act, think, or feel in certain ways, attitudes
are built from knowledge (cognitive and
experiential) and belief systems
Behavior: the way a person acts
– Behavior does not always predict attitude and
vice versa
– Frequent discrepancies exist between the two on
individual and cultural levels and can result in
confusion
Egocentrism and
Ethnocentrism




Often occur in our consideration of
different ethnic groups
Transmitted from one generation to
another
Prevent understanding from a
culturally relative position
Oscar Wilde – “Morality is simply the attitude
we adopt towards people we personally dislike.”
Sex Research Methods

Scientific Method: the method by
which a hypothesis is formed from
impartially gathered data and tested
empirically.
– Induction: drawing a general conclusion
from specific facts
– Seeks to describe the world rather than to
evaluate or judge it
Research Concerns

Ethical
– Concerns use of human beings as
subjects of research

Methodological
– Concerns center on information-gathering
techniques and accuracy
– A representative sample of people is
necessary to draw accurate conclusions
Ethical Issues

Informed consent
– Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits
– Agreement to participate may be
withdrawn

Protection from harm
– Emotional distress must be avoided
– Identity of subjects must be confidential
Sampling



Sample: a portion of a larger group of
people are observed or studied
Inferences are made to the larger
group
Good samples are:
 Random
 Representative
 Unbiased
Limitations of Samples
Restrict Generalizations




Depend on volunteers or clients
Takes place at universities or colleges
with student volunteers
Some ethnic groups are
underrepresented
Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual
and transgendered people may not be
publicly identified
Clinical Research



An in-depth examination of an
individual or group that comes to a
specialist for assistance with disorders
and problems
Limited by an emphasis on
pathological behavior
Shaped by cultural definitions of what
is pathological (ex. in the 19th century
masturbation was considered pathological)
Survey Research

Questionnaires
– Administered quickly
– Forced choice allows many formats

Interviews
– Allow more information to be gathered
– Allow subjects to guide topics

Internet Survey
– More individuals may be reached, even in remote areas
– Participants may be higher SES groups

Sexual diaries
– Collect richer information
– May work well with some subjects but not all
Survey Research
Limitations



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Subjects may report self behavior with bias
Interviewers may collect information with a
bias
Subjects may be embarrassed in an
interview
Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time
passes
Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate
factors such as how long sexual encounters
last
Observational Research



The researcher unobtrusively observes
and makes notes about people’s
behavior
Serious ethical issues in observing
sexual behavior without subjects’
knowledge or consent
Known observation generally affects
behavior
Participant Observation



The researcher participates in the
behaviors which she or he is studying
Used frequently by anthropologists
Is sex research controversial because
it compromises objectivity?
Experimental Research

The systematic manipulation variables to
examine the effect on behavior. This research
enables the researcher to isolate a single
factor under controlled circumstances to
determine its influences.
Independent variables: factors that can be
manipulated and changed by the experimenter
 Dependent variables: factors that are likely to
be affected by changes in the independent
variable
 Correlation Variables – determine the
relationship of two or more variables

An Example of
Experimental Research

Examine effect of various amounts of
alcohol on sexual arousal
– Alcohol—independent variable
– Plethysmograph measurement of
arousal—dependent variable

Causal effect demonstrated
The Sex Researchers
– In 19th century, Western sexuality began
to be studied from a scientific framework

Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex:
fetishism, sadism, masturbation,
homosexuality
– Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our
thinking about sexuality

20th century researchers viewed sexuality
more positively
The Sex Researchers

Three themes evident in later 20th
century sex researchers’ work:
– Belief that sexual expression is essential
to an individual’s well being
– Desire to broaden the range of legitimate
sexual activity, including homosexuality
– Belief that female sexuality is equal to
male sexuality
Richard von Krafft-Ebing
(1840-1902)

Psychopathia Sexualis (1886):
– A collection of the case histories of fetishists,
sadists, masochists, and homosexuals
– Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to
“hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and
masturbation
– Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that
had never been documented
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)


Dramatically impacted Western ideas
Sexuality begins at birth with five-stage
development:
Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
 Anal stage (age 1-3)
 Phallic stage (age 3-5)
 Latency stage (age 6-puberty)
 Genital stage (puberty onward)

Sigmund Freud: Phallic
stage (“The Critical Stage”)

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Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for
mother and fears father
Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his
penis: castration anxiety
Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for
father and fears mother
Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and
therefore fail to develop an independent character
like that of boys
By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes by
relinquishing their desires for their parents and
identifying with their same-sex parent
Sigmund Freud: Impact
– Freud was pioneering in commitment to
science and explorations of the unconscious
– Over the past generation, his influence
among American sex researchers has
dwindled
 Lack of empiricism
 Inadequate description of female
development
 Questions of relevance to contemporary
society
– In the field of sex research, his work is now
primarily of historical interest
Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)


One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910)
Pointed out the relativity of sexual values
 Appealed to case studies as well as studies in
animal behavior, anthropology, and history
 Challenged view that masturbation was
abnormal
 Documented existence of women’s sexual
desires
 Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital
condition

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)

The Kinsey Reports
– Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
(1948)
– Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
(1953)
Statistical documentation of American sexual
behavior
 Showed a significant discrepancy between
public standards and actual standards of
sexual behavior

Alfred Kinsey: Impact (video)

Sexual Diversity and Variation
Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects
 Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had sexual
experiences with members of the same-sex


Reevaluation of Masturbation
Important for women
 Harmless
 Pleasurable

Alfred Kinsey:
Controversy



Same sex behavior
– Labels of “heterosexual” and
“homosexual” were inadequate ways of
understanding sexual behavior
– Devised the “Kinsey Scale”
Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy
– Sexual differences are a matter of degree,
not kind
– Became an advocate of the tolerance
Decline of society
Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6
Alfred Kinsey: Criticisms



Statistical methodology:
unrepresentative sampling
Emphasis on quantification of sexual
behavior
Rejection of the psychological
dimension (reducing behavior to
genital activity)
William Masters (1915-2001)
and Virginia Johnson (1925-)



Human Sexual Response (1966)
Detailed the sexual response cycles of
hundreds of male and female research
subjects
Combined clinical observation with
direct measurement of genital arousal
using electronic devices
Masters and Johnson:
Outcomes



Similarity of male and female sexual
responses
Women achieve orgasms via clitoral
stimulation
Legitimized female masturbation
Masters and Johnson:
Outcomes

Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
– Argued that sexual problems were not the
result of neuroses or personality
disorders
– Rather, lack of information, poor
communication, or relationship conflict
contributed
– Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual
problems with great success
Contemporary Research
Studies
– Several large, national, or multi-site
sexuality related studies have recently
been conducted
The National Health and Social Life Survey
(1994)
 The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual)
 The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System
(annual)
 The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic)
 College Alcohol Study (every few years)
 Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project

Contemporary Research
Studies




Large scale national sexuality related
studies
Smaller scale studies
Difficulties due to political and social
climate
Restricted funding
The National Health and
Social Life Survey 1994




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
Americans are largely exclusive.
On an average, Americans have sex about once a week.
Extramarital sex is the exception, not the rule.
Most Americans have fairly traditional sexual behaviors.
Homosexuality is not as prevalent as originally believed.
Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the
exception for women.
Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical
problems.
Three percent of adult Americans claim never to have
had sex.
The National Survey of
Family Growth 2002/2008


Periodically, the National Center for Health
Statistics (NCHS) conducts the National
Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) to collect
data on marriage, divorce, contraception,
infertility, and health of women and infants
in the United States.
See results – pg. 52-53, text
The Youth Risk Behavior
Survey 2009


The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), conducted
biannually by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), measures the prevalence of six
categories of health risk behaviors among youths
through representative national, state, and local
surveys using a self-report questionnaire. Sexual
behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy
and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV,
are among those assessed.
See Results – p. 53, text
National College Health
Assessment


Since year 2000, every fall and spring term the
American College Health Association has conducted
research at colleges and universities throughout the
United States to assess students’ health behaviors
and their perceptions of the prevalence of these
behaviors among their peers. Areas covered are
alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health,
weight, nutrition, and exercise; mental health,
injury prevention, personal safety, and violence.
See Results – p. 54, text (see graph, next slide)
Figure 2.2 - Percentage of College Students Who Reported
Having Oral Sex, Vaginal Sex, and Anal Intercourse in the Past
30 Days and the Percentage Reporting Using a Condom or Other
Protective Barrier, Spring 2012
The National Survey of Sexual
Health and Behavior


The most expansive nationally representative study
of sexual and sexual-health behaviors, the National
Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB),
was published in 2010, 16 years following the first
nationally representative study, the 1994 National
Health and Social Life Survey described earlier. The
NSSHB, a study based on Internet reports from
5,865 American adolescents and adults aged 14–
94, provides a needed and valuable updated
overview of Americans’ sexual behavior and reveals
an increase in sexual diversity since the NHSLS.
See Results – p. 55, text
Emerging Research
Perspectives

Feminist scholarship
– Focus on gender issues
– Examines distribution of power in sexual
relationships

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and
transgender
– Focus on personal experience
– Examines social and psychological
components
Feminist Scholarship
Principles




Gender is significant
Female experience devalued
Power is critical in relationships
Ethnic diversity must be addressed
Important GLBT
researchers across time

Karl Ulrichs (1825-1895)– Men Who
are attracted to men represent a third
sex (Urnings), and are born with this
attraction. Urnings had a distinctive
feminine quality that distinguished
them from men who desired women
Important GLBT
researchers across time

Karl Kertbeny (1824-1882) – disagreed
with Ulrichs that Urnings were
inherently feminine, redefined sexual
preference as heterosexual and
homosexual. Asserted that
homosexual men were no more
effeminate that heterosexuals.
Important GLBT
researchers across time


Magnus Hirschfeld (1868-1935) Presented
the case for the humanity of Transvestism.
Argued that homosexuality was inherent. In
1897, he helped found the first organization
for homosexual rights. He also founded the
first journal devoted to the study of
sexuality and the first Institute of Sexual
Science.
Important GLBT
researchers across time

Evelyn Hooker – (1907-1996) –
Demonstrated that homosexuality is
not in itself a psychological disorder.
She demonstrated that “gay” men do
not significantly differ from “straight”
men in personality characteristics.
Important GLBT
researchers across time

Michel Foucault (1926-1984) –
Postulated that society creates social
ideals and then works to perpetuate
the same ideals. He challenged that
society “constructs” sexuality including
heterosexual and homosexuality
Ethnicity and Sexuality


Researchers have begun to recognize
differences among ethnic groups
Related factors: socioeconomic status,
environment, methodology,
researcher’s stereotypes
African Americans and
Research

Sexual stereotypes – “black males are
hypersexual beings”
– Racism towards black women promoted the
exploitation of black women by white masters
during the slavery era.


Socioeconomic status – Low SES results in
higher risk behaviors and early sexual
practice / pregnancies
Black subcultures – exploitation of sexuality
through music
African Americans and
Research

Future research:
– 1) explore the sexual attitudes of the
entire population, not just the adolescent
population
– 2) examine sexuality from the black
perspective / cultural viewpoint
– 3) use cultural equivalencies that rejects
the differences between white and black
as signs of inherent deviances
Latinos and Research




Sexual stereotypes – men are pathologically
“macho” / promiscuous, and the culture is
sexually permissive
Traditional cultures – machismo is a
preferred characteristic, and familismo is a
preferred value.
Catholicism – premarital virginity expected
and contraception forbidden
Acculturation – changing practice and
values as one culture adopts to another
culture practice
Latinos and Research

Factors to consider in Latino Sexuality
research –
– 1) diversity of ethnic groups
– 2) significance of socioeconomic status
– 3) degree of acculturation
– 4) impact of bicultural Latino families
Asian Americans and
Pacific Islanders



Increase in population – fastest growing and
most diversified populations in the U.S.
Collectivist culture – focus is often on what
is for the good of the family and less interest
on the self. Low divorce rates and more
focus is on the sexual pleasure of the man
Immigration and Acculturation
– Many Asian Americans practice less traditional
cultural practice in human sexuality and more
westernized norms and practices.
End of Chapter 2