PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation
Chapter 2
Current Paradigms in
Psychopathology
Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Edition
by
Ann M. Kring, Gerald C. Davison, John M. Neale,
& Sheri L. Johnson
Notion of a Paradigm



Goal: Study abnormal behavior
scientifically
Science aims for objectivity
Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn)
» Perspective or conceptual framework from
within which a scientist operates
– We can never be totally objective

No one paradigm sufficient to completely
explain psychopathology
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Current Paradigms: Genetic
Heredity plays a role in most behavior
 Genes

» Carriers of genetic information (DNA)
» Impacted by environmental influences
– e.g., stress, relationships, culture

Relationship between genes and
environment is bidirectional
» Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)
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Important Genetic Terms

Gene expression
» Proteins influence whether the action of a specific
gene will occur

Polygenic transmission
» Multiple gene pairs vs. single gene

Heritability
» Extent to which variability in behavior is due to
genetic factors
– Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
– Group, rather than, individual indicator
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Environmental Effects

Shared environment
» Events and experiences that family
members have in common

Nonshared environment
» Events and experiences that are unique to
each family member
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Behavior Genetics


Study of the degree to which genes and
environmental factors influence behavior
Genotype
» Genetic material inherited by an individual
» Unobservable

Phenotype
» Expressed genetic material
» Observable behavior and characteristics
» Depends on interaction of genotype and
environment
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Molecular Genetics

Identifies particular genes and their functions
» Alleles
– Different forms of the same gene
» Polymorphism
– Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a
population

Knockout studies
» Removing specific genes in animals to
observe effect on behavior
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Figure 2.1 DNA/RNA
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Gene-Environment Interaction

Gene-environment interaction
» One’s response to a specific environmental event
is influenced by genes.

Epigenetics
» Study of how the environment can alter gene
expression or function
» Cross-fostering adoptee method
– Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were
raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower
levels of stress reactivity (Francis et al., 1999)
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Figure 2.2 Gene-Environment
Interaction (Adapted from Caspi et al., 2003)
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Reciprocal Gene-Environment
Interaction

Genes predispose individuals to seek
out situations that increase the likelihood
of developing a disorder.
» Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability
for depression more likely to experience
events that can trigger depression (Silberg et
al., 1999)
» Dependent life events influenced by genes
(Kendler & Baker, 2007)
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Current Paradigms:
Neuroscience

Examines the contribution of brain structure
and function to psychopathology
» Mental disorders are linked to aberrant
processes in the brain.

Four mechanisms:
»
»
»
»
Neurons and neurotransmitters
Brain structure and function
Autonomic system
Neuroendocrine system
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Figure 2.3 The Neuron
Basic Unit of the Nervous System
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Neurons and Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter
» Chemicals that allow neurons to
send a signal across the synapse
(gap) to another neuron.

Receptor sites on postsynaptic
neuron absorb neurotransmitter
» Excitatory
» Inhibitory

Reuptake
» Reabsorption of leftover
neurotransmitter by presynaptic
neuron
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Neurotransmitters and
Psychopathology

Serotonin and dopamine
» Depression, mania, and schizophrenia

Norepinephrine
» Anxiety and other stress related disorders

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
» Anxiety

Possible mechanisms
» Excessive or inadequate levels
» Insufficient reuptake
» Excessive number or sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors
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Figure 2.5 The Process by which a
Second Messenger is Released
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Figure 2.6 Brain Structure and
Function

Sulci define regions
or lobes:
»
»
»
»
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
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Figure 2.7 Brain Slice through
Medial Plan
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Figure 2.8 Subcortical Structures
of the Brain
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Figure 2.9 The HPA Axis




HPA axis involved in
stress
Hypothalamus triggers
release of corticotropinreleasing hormone
(CRF)
Pituitary gland releases
adrenocorticotropic
hormone
Adrenal cortex triggers
release of cortisol, the
stress hormone
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Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System
» Excitatory
» Heartbeat acceleration, pupil dilation,
gastrointestinal inhibition, electrodermal activity
increases

Parasympathetic Nervous System
» Quiescent
» Heartbeat deceleration, pupil constriction,
gastrointestinal activation

Involved in anxiety disorders, especially
Panic and PTSD
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Figure 2.10 Autonomic Nervous
System
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Neuroscience and Treatment

Psychoactive drugs alter
neurotransmitter activity
» Antidepressants
» Antipsychotics
» Benzodiazepenes

A neuroscience view does not preclude
psychological interventions
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Evaluating the Neuroscience
Paradigm

Reductionism
» View that behavior can best be understand
by reducing it to its basic biological
components
– Ignores more complex views of behavior
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Current Paradigms:
Psychodynamic

Fails to contribute to our empirical
understanding of the causes of
psychopathology
» Greatest contribution are in treatment
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Role of the Unconscious

Contemporary theorists have attempted to
study the unconscious scientifically
» Pathogenic beliefs
– Beliefs that occur outside of conscious awareness
– Trigger maladaptive thoughts and emotions

Implicit memory
» Cognitive neuroscience paradigm
– The unconscious may reflect efficient information
processing rather than a repository for troubling
material
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Importance of Interpersonal
Relationships

Object relations theory
» Longstanding patterns of relating to others

Attachment theory
» Type and style of infant’s attachment to
caregivers can influence later psychological
functioning.

Relational self
» Individuals will describe themselves differently
depending upon which close relationships are
told to think about (Chen et al., 2006)
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Brief Psychodynamic Therapy






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Time-limited
Active therapist involvement
Concrete goals
Development of coping skills
Current life experiences
Transference downplayed
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
»
»
»
»
Unresolved grief
Role transitions
Role disputes
Interpersonal or social deficits
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Evaluating Freud and
Psychoanalysis
No formal research
 Inadequate non-representative samples
 Continuing impact:

» Personality shaped by early childhood
» Behavior influenced by unconscious
» Causes of behavior not always apparent or
obvious
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Current Paradigms: Cognitive
Behavioral


Roots in learning principles and cognitive science
Behavior is reinforced by consequences
»
»
»
»


Attention
Escape or avoidance
Sensory stimulation
Access to desirable objects or events
To alter behavior, modify consequences (e.g., time
out)
Systematic desensitization
» Relaxation plus exposure
– Imaginal or in vivo
» Important treatment for anxiety disorders
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Cognitive Science


Behaviorism criticized for ignoring thoughts and
emotions
Cognition
» A mental process which includes:
– Perceiving, judging, reasoning, conceiving, & recognizing

Schema
» Organized network of previously accumulated
knowledge
» We actively interpret new information

Role of attention in psychopathology
» Anxious individuals more likely to attend to threat or
danger
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Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Initially developed for depression
 Depression caused by distorted
thoughts

» Nothing ever goes right for me!

Help patients recognize and change
maladaptive thought patterns
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Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior
Therapy

Irrational beliefs
» Internal, repetitive thoughts that reflect
assumptions about self
– In order to be happy, I must be loved!
» Musts or shoulds
– Unrealistic demands we place on self, others,
and the world

People shouldn’t make mistakes!
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Evaluating the CBT paradigm

Are distorted thoughts the cause or the
result of psychopathology?
» Causal status unclear

Is cognitive behavior therapy really
different from behavior therapy?
» Changing behavior can alter thought
patterns.
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Table 2.1 Comparison of
Psychoanalysis and CBT
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Factors Common to Paradigms

Emotion
» Components
– Expressive
– Experiential
– Physiological
» Most psychopathology includes disturbances
of one or more component
– e.g., flat affect in schizophrenia

Cultural factors influence ideal affect (Tsai,
2007)
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Factors Common to Paradigms

Sociocultural Factors
» Culture, ethnicity, gender, & social
relationships
» May increase vulnerability to psychopathology
– e.g., women more likely to experience depression
than men
» May also serve as a buffer
– e.g., social support
» Some disorders specific to certain cultures
– Hikikomori in Japanese culture
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Table 2.2 Lifetime Prevalence Rates of DSM-IVTR Disorders among Different Ethnic Groups
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Diathesis-Stress


Integrative model that incorporates multiple
causal factors (Zubin & Spring, 1977)
Diathesis
» Underlying predisposition
– May be biological or psychological
» Increases one’s risk of developing disorder

Stress
» Environmental events
– May occur at any point after conception
– Triggering event

Psychopathology unlikely to result from one
single factor
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COPYRIGHT
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the
material protected by this copyright may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
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