Gib Darden, Ed.D., Coastal Carolina University
Jane Shimon, Ed.D, Boise State University
Sandy Wilson, Ed.D., Coastal Carolina University

Defining Sport Specialization
◦ Year-round participation in a single sport, at the exclusion of other sports and
activities (1).
◦ An early start age of participation, early involvement in competition, intensive
involvement from an early age, and an early focus on performance improvement and
achieving success (2).

Defining Sport Diversification

Current Status of Specialization
◦ Participation in a variety of different sports before deciding to concentrate all efforts on
the pursuit of elite performance in one single sport.
◦
◦
◦
◦

Not a new issue…But new issues are arising
Farrey (2008)
New attention (NASPE/USOC)
Alarming reports and new concerns
Applying Developmental Framework of Expertise (Cote, et al., 2003)
◦ Sampling years (6-12)
◦ Specializing years (13-15)
◦ Investment years (16+)

Roots of early Sport Specialization & Barriers
to Educated and Informed Decisions
◦ Societal & Economic
◦ Family and Parental
◦ Talent and Skill Development

Popular Media

Privatization of Youth Sports

Commercialization of Youth Sports
◦ Stories of highly successful athletes
◦ Perceptions from the East
◦ Fair and Balanced?
◦ Funding decline (political) for parks and recreation
◦ Parks and Recreation Role: Brokers of sport programs to private programs
and entrepreneurs
◦
◦
◦
◦

(Coakley, 2010)
Youth Sport Entrepreneurs
Commercial Programs and Facilities
Media and Marketing, e.g. Little league World Series
Sporting Goods Industry
Professionalization of High School Sports
◦ Coach and School Pressures
(Gould, et. al., 2009)

Cultural Shifts

Labeling

Parent Worth-Child Achievement Link
◦ Emphasis on responsibility and control of children (24/7/365)
◦ Focus on Parents vs. Communities as sponsors of youth sports
◦ “In two short generations, parents went from being lucky and proud to
being the creators of child athletes” (Coakley, 2010)

Leisure Time Trends

Personal Economic Forces
(Malina, 2010)
◦ Discretionary vs. Organized time
◦ Increased Expenses
◦ Pursuit of Scholarships
◦ Pursuit of Professional Contracts

Migration of Eastern European Coaches (and programs)

The 10-year/10K hour rule

The Focus on Time vs. Quality of Experience (Brylinsky, 2010)

Initial Ability Correlated with Final Ability

The failure to Disseminate Sport Science Information to
Parents and Coaches (Malina, 2010)
◦ Expertise Research Extended to Sport and Media
◦ Deliberate Practice vs. Deliberate Play
◦ Skill Development an outcome of practice design and coach
behaviors
What are the forces at work in your
communities?
What trends or shifts have you noticed?
Is specialization or diversification
reinforced or embraced?

Coinciding and Interacting Forces - The “Perfect Storm”

Deck is stacked heavily in favor of sport specialization

Counter-forces

One approach: Initiate Education Efforts/Programs, e.g.
◦ Level the playing field so that sport providers and consumers can
make informed decisions.
◦
◦
◦
◦
Concussion
Hazing
Gambling
Bullying
There is a lot we know AND do not know about
“best practices” in youth sport specialization
or diversification
◦ Skill Development
◦ Physical & Physiological
◦ Psychological/Social

Abilities, mind, and body are developmental and
maturational



Fundamental motor skills base for future participation



Discovering natural talents
Predicting final performance from initial performance
Successful with more athletic skills
(Clark & Metcalf, 2002)
Repertoire of skills transferred from one activity to
another (Berry, Abernathy & Cote, 2008)
Practice content versus practice quantity
2003; Brylinsky, 2010)

Implicit learning and deliberate play
(Baker, Cote & Abernethy,
Stages of Athletic Talent Development
Investigators examining the history of talent development
in elite athletes suggest that champion athletes go
through various phases of involvement:
Stage 1-Entry or Initial phase
Fun and development
Stage 2-Investment phase
Talent recognized, specialization in one sport begins
Stage 3-Elite performance excellence phase
Recognized as “elite”, many practice hours
Stage 4- Excellence maintenance phase
Recognized as “exceptional”, maintain excellence, considerable
demands
(reprinted in Weinberg & Gould ,2011)

Diversification of elite athletes (USOC, 2002)

Odds of participation at higher levels
(NCAA, 2011)
Estimated Probability of Competing in Athletics
Beyond the High School Interscholastic Level
School Interscholastic Level
Note: These percentages are based on estimated data and should be considered approximations of the actual percentages
Last Updated: September 27, 2011 (NCAA)
Student-Athletes
Men's
Basketball
Women's
Basketball
High School Student Athletes
545,844
438,933
High School Senior Student Athletes
155,955
125,409
316,697
NCAA Student Athletes
17,500
15,708
NCAA Freshman Roster Positions
5,000
NCAA Senior Student Athletes
Football
Baseball
1,108,441 471,025
Men's Ice Men's
Hockey Soccer
36,912
398,351
134,579
10,546
113,815
67,887
31,264
3,944
22,573
4,488
19,396
8,933
1,127
6,449
3,889
3,491
15,086
6,948
876
5,016
NCAA Student Athletes Drafted
48
32
255
806
11
49
Percent High School to NCAA
3.2%
3.6%
6.1%
6.6%
10.7%
5.7%
Percent NCAA to Professional
1.2%
0.9%
1.7%
11.6%
1.3%
1.0%
Percent High School to Professional
0.03%
0.03%
0.08%
0.60%
0.10%
0.04%

Endocrine System

Muscular System
(growth rate & maturation)
 No supporting research – accelerates or slows growth/maturation
 Improves strength and power w/ little hypertrophy (low levels of
circulating testosterone) (Faigenbaum et al., 2009)
 Higher repetitions with lower weight
 Activates existing muscles

Nervous System

Cardiovascular System
(myelination of nerve fibers)
 Improvements (i.e., reaction, quickness, skill improvement) due to
current level of developmental potential
 Limited benefits due to smaller heart size/lower blood volume
 Early training does not produce super endurance athletes (Rowland, 2005)

With increased sport training and competition comes greater risk
for injury

Repetitive micro-trauma to soft tissues has potential long-term
consequences on musculoskeletal system

Growth-related concerns
(DiFiori, 2002; Valovich, et al., 2011)
◦ Articular cartilage (osteochondritis dissecans)
◦ Physis Injuries (growth plate area of bone)
◦ Apophyseal Injuries (bone/tendon junction)
 Osgood Schlatter – patellar tendon
 Sever’s Disease – Achilles tendon

Cause or Contribute?
 Poor fitness levels
 Excessive training and errors in conditioning (FITT)


Delayed or stop of menses (early osteoporosis)
Disordered eating
 Fatigue and inadequate rest
 Muscle weakness / imbalances
 1-2 days off/week (competition, sport-specific training,
competitive practices/scrimmages)
 2-3 months away from specific sport training and
competition
 Progressive Training Schedule
 Total distance, reps, weight should not increase by more than
10% each week




Encourage participation on only one team during a season
Pay attention to complaints of nonspecific joint problems
Educational opportunities for all involved
OVERALL – delay single sport specialization and promote
sport diversification, especially at younger ages, before 1213 years.
(Brenner, 2007; Malina, 2010; Valovich et al., 2011)

Withdrawal/Burnout (long-term result of emotional
and/or physical exhaustion)
Weinberg & Gould (2011)
 Pressure to win
 Time constraints, high training volumes

Expectations (over-involvement)
 Self - perfectionism
 Imposed by others (parents) to advance
 Investment pressure
 Parents’ commitment to allow children to “be all they can be”
 Parents’ judging their self-worth on child’s achievements

Societal emphasis on specialization

Better coaches work with more talented players



Better coaching = better skill instruction
Social Concerns
 Lack of a social life (lost childhood)
 Develop of social skills (social isolation)

Lack of FUN and Interest
 Fake injuries to get out of the sport (“crying out” to stop)





Athletic talent can be accurately predicted at a young age.
True
False
A young athlete should have less fun if he/she is practicing to be an elite athlete.
True
False
All young athletes must progress through identified stages of athletic talent
development.
True
False
With early sport specialization comes increased sport training and competition
with greater risk for injury.
True
False
Sport scientists have indicated that athletes require a general sports background
during youth and early adolescence (age 7-13 years) in order to better prepare
them for the vigorous demands of specializing in one sport.
True
False




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Most Olympic athletes participated in multiple sports (3 or more) between ages
10-14.
True
False
Intense training among young athletes will lead to a college athletic scholarship
about 20% of the time.
True
False
Talented children need different entry programs and coaching approaches than
their less talented counterparts.
True
False
Early sport specialization (pre-puberty) leads to decreased injury rates as it
facilitates physical development.
True
False
Early sport diversification (multi-sport participation) is positively related to length
of sport involvement.
True
False
What do you think are the primary costbenefit considerations?
Might you add a consideration or clarify
existing ones?
Do any considerations warrant special
attention?

For the large majority of athletes in the large majority
of sports:





Diversification is the recommended pathway to elite
performance
Positive associations between participation in multiple
sports at a young age and career achievement
Positive associations between participation in multiple
sports at a young age and longevity
Avoidance of negative consequences of early
specialization
Combination of the sport, individual’s age, maturation,
gender, and environment should be considered




Encouraging diversification difficult and efforts
are often indirect and ineffective
We should explore our policies, rules, practices,
or traditions that indirectly or directly
promote/discourage healthy sport participation
Self-study what we do (vs. parents)
We want to hear from you…and your
communities
For Example…

Rules to avoid negative effects of specialization

Education/training for elite club coaches vs.
developmental/recreation leagues

Middle and H.S. Coach Hiring (expectations and philosophy)

Middle and H.S. Reward systems

College coach recruitment of athletes

H.S. Eligibility policies

Middle and H.S. partnerships with club sports
◦ Single sport participation, e.g. WTA age restrictions (2004)
◦ “Positional Specialization”, e.g. USA Volleyball

What is happening in your community?
◦ Organizational practices, expectations, culture
◦ Recent changes


How do they relate to sport specialization or
diversification?
What do you suggest/recommend as possible
policies and practices?
Assuming what we know about sport specializationdiversification is sufficient:

Proactive education is the key to addressing sport and health
problems

Who do we educate?

How should we educate?

What resonates with parents, coaches, administrators?

What do we need to focus on?

What is “best” approach(es)?
For Example…

Share what we know

Popularize what we know

Sell…Accentuate the Positive

Include in Coaching Education

Look to approaches of other education programs (e.g. hazing,
concussion, etc.)
◦ National position statements and guidelines (e.g. NASPE, AAP, ISSP)
◦ Dissemination of specific studies from sport scientists (lay language)
◦ WHY the risks…
◦ Examples and successes of “diversified” athletes (Quiz 2)
◦ Share the Odds (NCAA statistics)
◦ Share the Research on Elite Athletes (USOC study)
◦ Materials
◦ Systematic steps to address/manage
◦ Funding
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
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1. Played only basketball in college at Arizona
2. Was only 5’11” as a senior in High School
3. Not recruited out of high school
4. Wanted to be a pro ice hockey goalie, but was cut
5. Did not start playing ball until 14 years old
6. Did not start playing ball until 16 years old
7. Outstanding goalkeeper in soccer
8. Was a top college basketball player at UCLA
9. Was cut from his high school hoops team at 16 years old
10. Eyesight as a child was 20/500
11. Pitched in the Little League World Series
12. Played pro basketball before winning an Olympic medal in
another team sport
13. Drafted 199th yet by his 4th season had two Superbowl MVP
awards
14. Drafted 17th round yet won seven league titles
Started out as a swimmer and only began playing ball in ninth
grade after a hurricane destroyed the pool

The practice of specialization is trending
upward

The evidence supporting specialization is
trending downward

Continue study and dissemination of best
practice in specialization-diversification

Need education initiatives that best inform
parents, coaches, administrators

National Organizations
◦ American Academy of Pediatrics- Committee on Sports
Medicine and Fitness – Intensive Training and Sports
Specialization in Young Athletes
◦ NASPE –position statement – Guidelines for Participation
in Youth Sport Programs: Specialization Versus
Multiple-Sport Participation
◦ International Society of Sport Psychology – position
statement – Sport Specialization Guidelines
◦ Youth Sport-Specific Organizations
“Children involved in sports should be encouraged
to participate in a variety of different activities
and develop a wide range of skills. Young
athletes who specialize in just one sport may be
denied the benefits of varied activity while facing
additional physical, physiologic, and psychologic
demands from intense training and competition.
This statement reviews the potential risks of
high-intensity training and sports specialization
in young athletes.”
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness Policy
Statement

This National Agenda for Hazing Prevention in
Education (2010) serves as a call to action to:
◦ Draw attention to the research about hazing, including
its health and safety risks.
◦ Advance and promote research-based hazing prevention
efforts.
◦ Coalesce individual and group efforts into a cohesive
response to hazing.
◦ Marshal and maximize resources to support and advance
hazing research and prevention.
Baker, J., Côté, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). Learning from the experts: Practice activities of expert decision-makers in
sport. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74(30), 342.
Brenner, J.S. (2007). Overuse injuries, overtraining, and burnout in child and adolescent athletes. Pediatrics, 119(6),
1242-1245.
DiFiori, J.P. (2010). Evaluation of overuse injuries in children and adolescents. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6),
372-378.
Clark, J.E., & Metcalf, J.S. (2002). The moutnain of motor development: A metaphor. In, J.E. Clark & J. Humphrey
(Eds.), Motor development: Research and reviews, 2, 163-190. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and
Physical Education
Faigenbaum, A.D., Kraemer, W.J., Blimkie, C.J., Jeffreys, I., Mitcheli, L.J., Nitka, M., et al. (2009). Youth resistance
training: Updated position statement paper from the national strength and conditioning association. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(5 Suppl), S60-79.
Gibbons, T., Hill, R., McConnell, A., Forster, T., & Moore, J. (2002). The path to excellence: A comprehensive view of
development of U.S. Olympians who competed from 1984-1998. United States Olympic Committee.
Kaleth, A.S., and Mikesky, A.E. (2010). Impact of early sport specialization: A physiological perspective. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 81(8), 29-32.
Malina, R.M. (2010). Early sport specialization: Roots, effectiveness, risks. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9(6),
364-371.
Rowland T. (2005). Children’s exercise physiology (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Valovich McLEod, T.C., Decoster, L.C., Loud, K.J., Micheli L.J., Parker, J.T., Sandrey, M.A., and White, C. (2011).
National Athletic Trainers’ Association position statement: Prevention of pediatric overuse injuries. Journal of
Athletic Training, 46(2), 206-220.
Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (2011). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Berry, J., Abernethy, B. & Côté, J. (2008). The contribution of structured activity and deliberate play to the
development of expert perceptual and decision-making skill. J Sport Exerc Psychol. Dec;30(6):685-708.
Coakley, J. (2010). The “Logic of Specialization: Using Children for Adult Purposes. Journal of Physical Education,
Recreation, and Dance, 81(8), 16-18.
Brylinsky, J. Practice makes perfect and other curricular myths in the sport specialization debate. Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation, and Dance, 81(8), 22-25.
Gould, D., Carson, S. Fifer, A.,& Lauer, L. (2009). Stakeholders’ perceptions of social-emotional and life
development issues characterizing contemporary high school players. J of Coaching Education, 2(1), 1-25.
Côté, J., Baker, J. & abernethy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework for acquisition of
expertise in team sports. In J.L. Starkes & K.A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sports (89-113).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
You are a Youth Sport
Administer, considering your
knowledge of early sport
specialization –What injury
prevention recommendations
would you make for children
participating in youth sports?
 1-2 days off/week (competition, sport-specific training,
competitive practices/scrimmages)
 2-3 months away from specific sport training and
competition
 Progressive Training Schedule
 Total distance, reps, weight should not increase by more than
10% each week




Encourage participation on only one team during a season
Pay attention to complaints of nonspecific joint problems
Educational opportunities for all involved
OVERALL – delay single sport specialization and promote
sport diversification, especially at younger ages, before 1213 years.
You are the coach of a middle
school basketball program,
Identify early sport
specialization-diversification
topics that would be important
to educate parents about in an
orientation meeting for a team
of 10-to 12-year-old athletes.

Practices and games focus: learning new skills,
gaining confidence in one’s abilities and
fostering a lifelong love of physical activities
(NASPE).
Educate: overtraining and overuse injuries
Educate: burnout/dropping out
Educate: potential to develop eating disorders
Educate: opportunity to develop other skills
Educate: small minority of athletes make it to the
elite level
Educate: natural talent may be in another sport
Educate: social opportunities
You are working as a youth
sport director of a YMCA that
sponsors numerous sport
programs for elementary and
middle school age children, what
strategies would you initiate to
ensure positive psychological
experiences for the children
involved?





Developmentally and instructionally
appropriate activities!
Learning a wide range of physical skills
Exposure to diverse experiences and
relationships
Education on Burnout
Discourage specialization in one sport until a
young person can make a fully informed
decision, usually at age 15 (NASPE).
Now what? Considering all
information, how can we, as
leaders in youth sport, educate
about early sport specialization?
 How can we create and/or
modify current practices and
policies?
 How can we implement these
practices and policies?
Educate? Early Sport
Specialization
Create/Modify and Implement
Policies