MKT201 - Week 8
Attitudes (Ch. 7)
The Power of Attitudes
• Attitude:
– A lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself),
objects, advertisements, or issues
– Anything toward which one has an attitude is called an
object (Ao).
– Attitudes are lasting because they tend to endure over time
and general because it applies to more than a momentary
event
• Attitudes help us make all forms of choices such as:
– Very product-specific behaviors (Crest Vs Colgate), and more general
consumption-related behaviors (how often in brushing teeth)
The Functions of Attitudes
•
Functional Theory of Attitudes:
– To explain how attitudes facilitate social behavior
– Attitudes exist because they serve some function for the
person (i.e., they are determined by a person’s motives)
•
Attitude functions identified by Daniel Katz
(explain why an attitude is held):
1. Utilitarian function
2. Value-expressive function
3. Ego-defensive function
4. Knowledge function
The Functions of Attitudes
By Identifying the Dominant Function a Product Serves for Consumers What Benefits it Provides - Marketers Can Emphasize These Benefits in
Communications & Packaging.
1. Utilitarian
Reward and
Punishment
2. Value-Expressive
Consumer’s Values
or Self-Concept
(Coke – good taste)
(lifestyle – AIOs)
Attitude
Functions
4. Knowledge
Need for Meaning,
Order & Structure
3. Ego-Defensive
Protect Person
From Threats
(new product)
(deodorant)
Addressing Smoking Attitudes
• This Norwegian ad addresses young people’s smoking
attitudes by arousing strong negative feelings. The ad reads
(left panel) “Smokers are more sociable than others.” (Right
panel): “While it lasts.”
The ABC Model of Attitudes
• Affect:
– The way a consumer feels about an attitude object
• Behavior:
– Involves the person’s intentions to do something
with regard to an attitude object
• Cognition:
– The beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object
• Hierarchy of Effects:
– A fixed sequence of steps that occur en route to an
attitude
Three Hierarchies of Effects
Figure 7.1
Attitude Hierarchies
(1) The Standard Learning Hierarchy:
– Consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving
process
(2) The Low-Involvement Hierarchy:
–
–
–
–
Consumer does not have strong initial preference
Consumer acts on limited knowledge
Consumer forms an evaluation only after product trial
The less important the product is to consumers, the more
important are the marketing stimuli (ad, packages, jingles)
(3) The Experiential Hierarchy:
– Consumers act on the basis of their emotional reactions
(towards ad, brand name, packaging)
(3) The Experiential Hierarchy (cont’d):
• Emotional Contagion:
– Emotions expressed by the communicator of a marketing
message affect the attitude toward the product
• Debate:
(a) Cognitive-Affective Model:
– Argues that an affective judgment is the last step in a series
of cognitive processes
VS
(b) Independence Hypothesis:
– Takes the position that affect and cognition involve two
separate, independent systems (affective responses do not
always require prior cognitions)
Smith and Wollensky
• This ad for New York’s
famous Smith &
Wollensky restaurant
emphasizes that
marketers and others
associated with a
product or service are
often more involved
with it than are their
consumers.
Product Attitudes Don’t
Tell the Whole Story
• Attitude Toward the Advertisement (Aad):
– A predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable
manner to a particular advertising stimulus during a particular
exposure occasion
• Ads Have Feelings Too:
– Three emotional dimensions:
• Pleasure, arousal, and intimidation/frightening
– Specific types of feelings that can be generated by an ad
• Upbeat feelings: Amused, delighted, playful
• Warm feelings: Affectionate, contemplative/deep thought, hopeful
• Negative feelings: Critical, defiant, offended
Ads Have Feelings Too
• Commercials evoke emotion
– Pleasure
– Arousal
– Intimidation
Attitudes Toward the Advertisement
The Attitude Toward the Advertisement is Defined
as a Predisposition to Respond in a Favorable or
Unfavorable Manner to a Particular Advertising
Stimulus During a Particular Exposure Occasion.
Determinants Include:
Attitude
Toward
Advertiser
Evaluations
of the
Ad Execution
Itself
Mood
Evoked by
the Ad
Degree to Which
the Ad Affects
Viewers’ Arousal
Levels
Example of an Ad With a “Warm” Feeling
Discussion Question
• Sexually suggestive
scenes like the one
depicted in this ad for
Union Bay clothing can
generate feelings that
affect brand attitudes.
• What specific types of
feelings or responses
can this type of
advertisement elicit?
How will this scene
affect the attitude
toward the ad?
Forming Attitudes
• An Attitude can form in several different ways
depending on the Hierarchy of Effects (see Fig.
7.1) and how the attitude is learned.
• It can occur because of (see Ch. 3 - Learning):
– Classical Conditioning, e.g. Attitude Object is paired
with a catchy jingle.
– Instrumental Conditioning, e.g. consumption of the
Attitude Object is reinforced.
– Complex Cognitive Process, e.g. teenager models
behavior of friends and media figures.
Forming Attitudes (cont.)
• Not All Attitudes Are Created Equal
– Levels of Commitment to an Attitude
• Compliance
– gaining rewards, avoid punishment; having Pepsi in a
nearby shop (rather than for a Coke in far away)
• Identification
– Forming attitude that conforms with another person or
group
• Internalization
– Deep-seated attitudes, becoming part of a person’s
value system
Forming Attitudes
Degree of Commitment
Levels of Commitment to an Attitude
High
Internalization
Identification
Compliance
Low
The Consistency Principle
Consumers Value Harmony Among Their Thoughts,
Feelings, and Behaviors, and They are Motivated
to Maintain Uniformity Among These Elements.
Levels of Attitudinal Commitment
• By describing Cadillac as “my company,” the woman
in this ad exhibits a high level of attitudinal
commitment to her employer.
Forming Attitudes (cont.)
• The Consistency Principle:
• Principle of Cognitive Consistency:
Consumers value harmony among
their thoughts, feelings or behaviors
to be consistent with other
experiences
• Beliefs or evaluations should be
consistent with one another
The Consistency Principle
(leading to different attitude theories)
1. Cognitive Dissonance and Harmony among
Attitudes:
– Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: When a person is
confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes or
behaviors, he or she will take action to reduce the
dissonance by changing an attitude or modifying a
behavior.
e.g. I don’t like Japan and so I don’t like product
made in Japan, but I like Sony’s products.
The Consistency Principle
(leading to different attitude theories)
2. Self-Perception Theory:
– People maintain consistency by inferring that they
must maintain a positive attitude toward a product
they have bought or consumed
• Foot-in-the-door technique (based on selfperception theory)
– Sales strategy based on the observation that
consumers will comply with a request if they have
first agreed to comply with a smaller request
Attitudinal Commitment
• This ad for a magazine illustrates that consumers
often distort information so that it fits with what they
already believe or think they know.
The Consistency Principle (cont.)
3. Social Judgment Theory:
– People assimilate new information about an
attitude object’s (Ao’s) based on what they already
know or feel.
– Attitudes of Acceptance and Rejection: People
differ in the information they find acceptable or
unacceptable.
• Assimilation effect: Messages that fall within the
latitude (range) of acceptance tend to be seen as more
consistent with one’s position than they actually are
• Contrast effect: Messages falling within the latitude of
rejection tend to be seen as being farther from one’s
position than they actually are
The Consistency Principle (cont.)
3. Social Judgment Theory (cont’d)
– People assimilate new information about an
attitude object’s (Ao’s) based on what they already
know or feel.
– A box is heavy or not? Depending on the weight
of other boxes you have just lifted.
– E.g., Julie has a +ve attitude toward women
playing football, then she would have a favorable
attitude toward ads promoting female athletic
participation.
Social Judgment Theory
Latitudes of Acceptance and Rejection
Assimilation
Attitude Anchor
Contrast
Latitude of
Acceptance
Latitudes of Rejection
The Consistency Principle (cont.)
4. Balance Theory:
– Considers relations among elements a person might
perceive as belonging together
Triad:
– An attitude structure consisting of three elements
(1) A person and his/her perceptions of
(2) an attitude object, and
(3) some other person or object
The Consistency Principle (cont.)
Balance Theory:
Triads – refers to a person’s attitude structure
People desire relations among the 3 elements in a triad
to be
harmonious or Balanced.
• Balanced (perception changed to restore balance, if not
harmonious)
Elements can be perceived as:
• Unit relation: An element is seen as belonging to or being
part of the other (e.g. married couple – 1 element being
part of the other)
• Sentiment relation: Two elements are linked because one
has expressed a preference for the other (e.g. dating
couple – 2 elements are linked)
Balance Theory
Considers Relations Among Elements a Person
Might Perceive as Belonging Together and Desires
the Relations Among the Elements in a Triad to be
Harmonious, or Balanced.
A Person and His/ Her
Perceptions (+ or - )
Triad
Some Other
Person or
Object
An Attitude
Object
Marketers May Use Celebrities to Endorse Products to
Achieve Balance.
Figure 7-2: Alternative Routes to
Restoring Balance in a Triad
Alex (Alejandro) has
+ve sentiment relation
with Larry, but she has
–ve sentiment relation
with men’s earring.
Larry has +ve unit
relation with the
earring.
Balance Theory (Cont’d)
• Marketing
Applications
– “Basking/satisfying in
reflected glory”
– Unit relation with popular
product = positive sentiment
relation in other people’s
triads
– Celebrity endorsers of
products (+ ve sentiment
relation)
Discussion
• Think of a behavior someone does that
is inconsistent with his or her attitudes
(e.g., attitudes toward cholesterol, drug
use, or even buying things to make him
or her stand out or attain status)
– Ask the person to elaborate on why he or she does
the behavior, then try to identify the way the person
has resolved dissonant elements
Discussion Question
• Consumer researchers
understand that
consumers like to “bask
in the reflected glory” of
successful college
athletic programs by
wearing merchandise
adorned with logos like
the ones on the right.
• How do the different
attitude theories explain
this consumer
phenomenon?
Attitude Models
• Attitude Models:
– Specify the different elements that might work together to
influence people’s evaluations of attitude objects (Ao)
• Multiattribute Models:
– Model that assumes a consumer’s Ao will depend on the
beliefs he or she has about several attributes toward the
object
• Multiattribute Models Specify 3 Elements:
– Attributes
– Beliefs
– Importance Weights
The Fishbein Model
The Fishbein Model is the Most Influential
Multiattribute Model and It Measures Three
Components of Attitudes:
1. Salient Beliefs
About
the Object That
Are Considered
During Evaluation
2. Object-Attitude
Linkages, or The
Probability That a
Particular Object Has
an Important
Attribute
3. Evaluation of Each
Assuming people will
go through the specific
evaluation process.
of the
Important Attributes
The Fishbein Equation
• The Basic Formula:
– Where:
•
•
•
•
•
Aijk = ΣβijkIik
i = attribute
j = brand
k = consumer
I = the importance weight given attribute I by consumer k
β = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which
brand j possesses attribute I
• A = a particular consumer’s (k’s) attitude score for brand j
The Basic Multiattribute Model
Strategic Implications of the
Multiattribute Model
Assuming your are the Marketing Director for Northland College:
(1) Capitalize on
Relative Advantage
(2) Strengthen Perceived
Product / Attribute
Linkages
Emphasize on active social life
and varied experience
Running informational campaign to
improve the perceptions
(4) Influence Competitors’ (3) Add a New Attribute or
product feature
Ratings
Having comparative advertising, e.g.
about cheaper tuition fee
Emphasize on unique aspects, e.g.,
internship program
Using Attitudes to Predict Behavior
• In many cases, knowledge of a person’s
attitude is not a very good predictor of
behavior
• Questionable link between attitude and
behavior
– Consumers love a commercial, but don’t buy the product
• The Extended Fishbein Model
– Called the Theory of Reasoned Action
– Contains several important additions to the original, which
improve its ability to predict behavior
The Theory of Reasoned Action
• Intentions Versus Behavior
– Theory of Reasonable Action extends to measure intentions
(rather than attitude), though the prediction of actual behavior
is still affected by uncontrollable factors
• Social Pressure: (the Theory acknowledges the power
of other people in influencing behaviour, i.e. subjective
norm)
– 2 factors of Subjective Norm (SN)
• Normative Belief (NB): Belief that others believe an action should
or should not be taken
• Motivation to Comply (MC): Degree to which consumers take into
account anticipated reactions
• Attitude Toward Buying:
– Attitude toward the act of buying (Aact):
• Knowing how someone feels about buying due to the
perceived consequences of a purchase. E.g. condoms –
positive attitude objects (Ao), but negative Aact
Using Attitudes to Predict Behavior
The Extended Fishbein Model is Called the
“Theory of Reasoned Action” and Includes
the Following Modifications:
Intentions
Versus
Behavior
Social
Pressure
(affecting
by
others
/public)
Attitude
Toward
Buying
(rather than
attitude
toward
product)
Aims to measure behavioral intentions, recognizing that certain
uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behavior.
Obstacles to Predicting Behavior
in the Theory of Reasoned Action
Obstacles to Predicting Behavior
Design
Measurement
Time-Frame
Locus of Control
Involvement
of other
party
Behavior = f (immediate
perception of attitude
object)
Correspondence
Happen
soon
Not specific enough
Basic Assumptions
Become invalid
Attitude Accessibility
Indirect experience
(through ad) is not so
strong and predictive
Cultural Roadblocks to the Theory of
Reasoned Action
• Roadblocks that diminish the
universality of the theory
– Model was designed to predict voluntary acts
– The relative impact of subject norms varies across
cultures
– The model assumes that consumers are actively
thinking ahead and planning behaviors
– A consumer that forms an intention claims that he or
she is in control of his or her actions
Trying to Consume
• Theory of Trying to Consume
– States that the criterion of behavior in the reasoned action model
should be replaced with trying to reach a goal
• Sample issues that might be addressed (whether
someone would try to lose weight):
– Past frequency
– Recency
– Beliefs (such as healthier if lost weight)
– Evaluations of consequences (girl/boy friend would be happier)
– The process (any uncomfortable or depressed)
– Expectations of success and failure
– Subjective norms toward trying (social pressure, approved by
others)
Theory of Trying (TT)
Figure 7.3
Joan has been trying to quit smoking for quite
some time now. She has tried 4 programs in
the past 2 years, and she is just now starting
her 5th. Go through the various issues of the
Theory of Trying and discuss each one as it
relates to Joan’s efforts.
Discussion
• Construct a multi-attribute
model for a set of local
restaurants
– Based on your findings, suggest
how restaurant managers can
improve an establishment’s image
via the strategies described in this
chapter
Tracking Attitudes over Time
• Attitude-tracking program:
– An single-attitude survey is a snapshot in time
– A program allows researchers to analyze attitude trends
during an extended period of time
• Ongoing Tracking Studies
– Attitude tracking involves administration of a survey at
regular intervals (e.g. Gallup Poll, Yankelovich Monitor)
http://www.galluppoll.com/
http://www.yankelovich.com/products/monitor.aspx
– This activity is valuable for making strategic decisions
Gallup Poll
Attitude Tracking Programs Allow Researchers to
Analyze Attitude Trends Over an Extended Period of
Time. Some Dimensions To Include in Attitude
Tracking Programs Include:
Changes in Different Age Groups
Lifecycle, Cohort and Historical Effects
Scenarios About the Future
Future Plans and Confidence in the Economy
Identification of
Change Agents
Facilitators and
inhibitors, such as
legal system,
professionals, etc.