Presented by :
Kenneth Ho
Joseph Hui
Stephen Tse
Ivy Hui
Quiny Lai
Susan Yeung






A. Functionalist Theories
B. Psychoanalytic Theories
C. Sociobiological / evolutionary psychology theories
D. Expansionist Theory
E. American Based Theory
=> Model of Work-Family Conflict in contemporary China



Talcott Parsons(1949) : gender-role specialization and complementary
=> marital relationship stability
Parsons and Bales (1955) : biological fact => asymmetry in marital roles
“generic significance with respect to the structure and functions of the family”

 Freud (1905) : male-female differences
Boy => identification with his father
Girl => both biological and psychological incomplete => marry and has a child =>like her primary identification (mother)


Erikson (1968) :
Identity development
“Inappropriate” gender-specific behaviour leads to serious negative psychological consequences



Differential parental investment & mechanism of sexual selection , male & female genes => solving the different reproductive challenges => differentiated gender roles
Deviations from “natural” behaviour => negative mental health consequences

(Barnet, et al, 2001)
4 basic principles: i.
Multiple roles are beneficial for well being ii.
Processes contributing to beneficial effects of multiple roles: a. buffering: negative effects of stress in one role ban be buffered by satisfaction in another role b. added income: dual earner reduce distress, affect marital disruption c. social support: beneficial vs stressful, depend on role quality d. opportunities to experience success: self-confidence/self efficacy vs failure, depend on role quality e. expanded frame of reference: more perspectives from other roles f. increase self complexity: buffered against negative effects of stress g. similarity of experience: facilitate spouse communication and marital quality h. gender role ideology: moderator iii.
Role quality: more important than no. of roles iv.
Psychological gender differences are not large or immutable

(Greenhaus, 1985)



Time based conflict: time pressures & pressures produce preoccupation


Work-related: no. of hours worked, inflexibility of work schedule, personality orientation
Family related: family role
Strain based conflict: role produce strain


Work-related: ambiguity/conflict within work role, low levels of leader support & interaction facilitation, work environment changes, task challenge, task autonomy
Family related: supportive spouses, spouse’s career orientations and fundamental beliefs
Behavior based conflict: specific patterns of in-role behaviour may be incompatible with expectations regarding behaviour in another role



Beyond American based model
Differences primarily due to :


 greater importance of interpersonal relationship in
China.
greater role that Chinese workers play in the lives of their elderly parents and vice versa.
societal differences in the impact of some stressors and availability of social services.

Model of Work-Family Conflict in Contemporary China
Role Demands in works:
•Commitment
•Productivity
•Responsibility
•Reliability
Interpersonal relationship
Demands at Work*
Social support in Work
Role from Manager &
Organization
Stressors in Work Domain:
•Full-time employment
•Non-day shift
•Job insecurity*
•Performance anxiety*
•
Interpersonal conflict with other employees*
Coping strategies in work role
Work-to-Family
Conflict
Physical & psychological well-being
Role Demands in Family :
•Earning money
•Responsibility for children
•Spouse support
•Household responsibilities
•
Responsibility for elderly parents*
Interpersonal relationship
Demands in Family*
Stressors in Family Domain:
•Large number of children
•Preschool children
•Occupational status & commitment of spouse
•Economic pressures
• Absence of household conveniences*
• Elderly parents as live-ins and dependants
• Interpersonal conflict with family members*
Family-to-Work conflict
Coping strategies in family role
Social support in
Family Role from
Spouse, Elderly parents* & Society*



Most researches findings were reviewed in the form of correlation, which was not justified for causal inferences.
The quasi-experimental design had created problems for scientific inferences
 Women were not randomly assigned to the multiple groups: full time employed, part time and homemakers.

In a study on ‘employment improves women’s health’, some women were forced to join one particular status by economic necessity.
 Other women who had health problems might have chosen not to work full time and chosen the group which was falling into healthy worker effect. In such case, health influences employment, which is in contrast with the objective of the study.



Most studies focused on measuring negative outcomes such as interrole conflict, depression, anxiety, neglecting favorable outcomes such as positive coping, perceived rewards from the multiple roles, and social support.
Other than gender ideology, many studies had failed to take into consideration the subjects’ personality traits such as adoption of attitudes in managing life, their behavior and affect in family and workplace.

A person’s expectations and values can shape his or her role behavior.



Number of hours is not the good parameter to measure quality of life . Other factors such as flexibility in working hours, social support and good working relationship in the work place are good predictors.
Most studies did not take into account the different educational level, social class, single-parent family, gay and lesbian family, and even cohabitation

 Taking the dual-earner couples as one homogenous group may not be correct:
 Crouter and Manke (1994) proposed three groups
 High-status dual-earner family
 Low-stress dual-earner family
 Main-secondary provider family



Most studies were American based; the findings might not be relevant to non-
American Societies such as China and
Hong Kong.
Cultural norms were not considered in most studies. In China, interpersonal relationship plays a significant role in affecting the stress level at work and family.

 Multiple roles are beneficial to well-being?
 Unable to test if there might be a curvilinear relationship between number of roles and mental health
 Additional roles might increase the complexity of self, but excessive roles would become stress-inducing agents. Overload and distress might occur beyond the upper limit.
 How to measure the upper limit?.
 Other than number of roles, role quality is more important
 Satisfactory experiences in parental, marital, and work roles benefit psychologically (Jenkins, Repetti and Crouter , 2000)
 There is a gap as there is no differentiation in accordance with marital status or parental status. Single and married women with multiple roles may have different experience in the level of depressive symptoms



There had been rare studies in the interactive effects of work and family role pressure
- In most studies, differences among samples and variations in home and work pressure variables had produced different results in determining the levels of conflict at different family stages
- Different specific job characteristics have different impact on work-family conflict. Some job nature has aroused additional family strains.
It is required to identify the work and family pressure that are associated with different career stages.



In the contemporary study of family-work conflict, to what extent do family strains experienced by male affect his work life?
To what extent do family strains experienced by female affect her family life?" ?





A large gap in the relationship between social support and physical health
While social support has buffering effect on relationship between work-family conflict and psychological well-being;
 to what extent do the social support processes that are enhanced by holding multiple roles related to physical wellness?
 the situations in which these processes are effective and situations in which they are not.
Which aspects of health are being affected and how?
Which aspects of social environment are perceived as supportive?
 Different perception of perceived support

 There should be a recognition of the effects of positive buffers other than social support that could help reduce the family-work conflict and have beneficial effect on physical and psychological well-being.

Further researches on the process of work-family conflict in other cultures other than
USA context




Western culture Vs Oriental culture
The factors of intergenerational and interpersonal relationship in Chinese societies
The concept of family & work in Chinese and Hong Kong
The concept of stress and mental health in Hong Kong



 What kinds of stressors can be identified in the work-family conflict
Stress level ?
The influence of stress to mental health









What about the effect of gender difference
The effect of multiple roles
The effect of family life cycle/developmental stage of the family
The effect of personality/characters to stress and conflict
The effect of socio-economic status
The personal problem solving capacity
The effect of values/beliefs and perceptions of self
The effect of social support network

Research on the loosen relationship affects on work-family conflict for cross-boarder workers in China / overseas



The work-family conflict of people working across the boarder in China
The psychological pressure of the members of the family during the absence of the husband / wife
The well being of the family members such as life satisfaction, sense of stability and self-identity

Research on effectiveness of social support on reducing the strain of the workers






As an exchange of resources between two individuals
Family-support policies developed by government
Family-support manager providing help and understanding based on the interpersonal relationship with the subordinate in need
As stress prevention moderating the effect of social support on the relationship between the role demands and stressors
How the support network influence the effects of workfamily role conflict
A flexible work schedule helping to make more manageable

Research on the affects of marital discord to work-family conflicts




The multidimensional set of cognitions and behaviors to tolerate the stress
Provision of emotional support such as esteem, affection and trust
As a family supportive manager providing the subordinate need
The spousal support built on a satisfactory marital relationship and a solid marriage

Research on intergenerational relationships






Providing the basis for social values
Serving a moderating role in the family-work variables
Being a form of empirical support in work-to-family role
Caring for children and doing household chores
Changing one’s way of viewing the problem and managing emotional distress aroused by the problem
As a basis for future empirical study in cultural domain

Research on interpersonal relationship in family and in work roles






Building a good relationship to secure favorable treatment
Causing a link between performance and rewards
Playing an important role in resource allocation, promotion and decisions
Developing culturally appropriate strategies to deal with work-family conflict and it effects
Emphasizing of collectivism and family
Promoting the susceptibility to the negative consequences of work-family conflict

References







Taylor, S.E. (1999). Health psychology (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Barnett, R. C., & Hyde, J. S. (2001). Women, men, work, and family: an expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56 (10), 781-796
Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin,98(2), 310-357.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A., & Gruen,
R. J. (1986). Dynamics of a stressful encounter: cognitive appraisal coping, and encounter outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
50 (5), 992-1003.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10 (1), 76-88.
Herbert, T. B., & Cohen, S. (1993). Stress and immunity in humans: a meta-analytic review. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55 , 364-379.
Ling, Y., & Powell, G. N. (2001). Work-family conflict in contemporary
China. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 1 (3), 357-373.